tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2604570087405966422024-03-13T18:03:31.836+05:30AgroWiki Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger19125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-39443243858951327442020-04-09T00:07:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.406+05:30Mango (Mangifera Indica)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">About :</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Mango is a tropical plant cultivated for its edible juicy stone fruit botanically called "Drupe".</li>
<li>Mango is native to Southeast Asia and Indo-Burma is believed to be the origin of cultivated mango. It is one of the oldest cultivated fruits, archaeological surveys and ancient scripture about mango suggest that the fruit was being cultivated by the Indians back in 4000 BC.</li>
<li>The Portuguese who opened the sea routes, were responsible for the world wide distribution of mango from Indo-Burma and indo-china regions. Mango is now being cultivated in over 60 counties worldwide.</li>
<li>Owing to its wide range of adaptability, deliciousness, quality, colour, flavor, richness in vitamins and minerals, mango has become the most important fruit crop of the world.</li>
<li>Mango is also the most choicest fruit of people and is consumed in many forms, hence it is popularly known as "King of Fruits". </li>
<li>The fruit is consumed both in raw and ripe forms, it is also used in preparation juices, sweets, ice creams salads etc...</li>
<li>Good mango varieties contain 20% of total soluble sugars. The acid content of ripe desert fruit varies from 0.2 to 0.5 % and protein content is about 1 %. Hence mango has assumed an important place in the fruit processing industry. It is widely used in preparation of pickle, canned fruits, jams, marmalade, squash etc...</li>
<li>Due to its huge demand, an increasing trend has been observed in world mango production averaging 22 million metric tonnes per year. </li>
<li>Globally mango is cultivated in over 60 countries, the global production of mango was 50 million tonnes in 2017 with India being the leading producer accounting for 30 percent of the total production. Other leading countries include China, Pakistan, Philippines, Brazil and Egypt.</li>
<li>Mango is the most important fruit crop in India, it is also considered to be a "Sacred tree".</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Cultivation :</span></b><br />
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Mango is a perennial crop, grows up to 150 feet in height with a crown diameter of 30 feet wide, but dwarf varieties may only grow up to 15 - 20 feet with crown width of around 10 feet . The trees can live up to 300 years although the yield may decrease over years, most trees yield the highest within 50 years and the peak yield within 20 years from the date of planting. The plant is tap rooted and the roots descend deep into the soil up to 20 feet with profuse, wide-spreading feeder and anchor roots. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 cm long, and 6–16 cm broad when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) long, with a mild, sweet fragrance. The fruit takes four to five months from flowering to ripen. There are over 1000 known cultivars of mango although only about 50 of them are commercially cultivated. Depending on the cultivar, the fruits vary greatly in terms of size, colour, taste, shape, sweetness and weight. Mango is propagated both from seeds and grafting although grafting is proved to yield better results. </div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Interesting Fact - The heaviest mango weighed 3.435 kg (7.57 lb) and was presented by Sergio and Maria Socorro at the Sundayag Celebration's Pinaka Contest in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, on 27 August 2009.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Climate and Soil :</span></b><br />
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<li>Mango is mainly a tropical crop, but also grows well in sub-tropical and semi humid regions.</li>
<li>Mango has wide range of temperature adaptability, it is found to grow in temperatures ranging from 0 to 45 degrees although the crop gives best results in temperature between 25 to 45 degrees.</li>
<li>The plant cannot withstand frost during younger stage and flowering, Temperature greatly effects the sex expression in mango hence low, minimum and maximum temperatures obtained during the period of panicle development influences the total outcome of the yield. </li>
<li>Mango grows well in regions that receive an annual rainfall of 750 to 3000 mm, the distribution of rainfall through the crop duration is important compared to the total amount of rainfall. Rain during flowering is detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination and also encourages greater incidence of pests and diseases. </li>
<li>Dry period before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. </li>
<li>Strong winds and cyclones during fruiting season can play havoc and blow away the crop completely. </li>
<li>Mango can be grown on a wide variety of soils, ranging from alluvial to lateritic, provided it is deep and well drained. </li>
<li>A pH ranging between 5.5-7.0 with good drainage ,permeability, a fair water holding capacity and ground water at a depth of 3 - 4 m are features of an ideal soil for mango.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Seasons and Sowing :</span></b><br />
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<li>Planting is usually done in the month of July-August in rainfed areas and during February-March in irrigated areas. In case of heavy rainfall zones, planting is taken up at the end of rainy season.</li>
<li>Mango is cultivated through seeds (stone cultivation) and grafting although grafting is the most commonly followed practice for propagation due to the following reasons.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Advantages of Grafting :</span></b></div>
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<li>The plants grown will be True to type, it helps in preserving the desirable characteristics of the mother plant.</li>
<li>It enable higher resistance to pests and diseases among the plants.</li>
<li>It enables quick establishment of the plants on the field.</li>
<li>It helps in selecting only the best seedlings to be transplanted on to the main field and thereby helps maintain a good crop stand.</li>
<li>It provides greater vigor and promotes quick growth of plants enabling higher yields.</li>
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There are several methods of grafting, the most common methods used in Mango are Veneer grafting and Inarching, budding, Air layering. A rootstock is needed for grafting which are obtained by sowing the seeds of mango in nurseries. The Stones (Seeds of Mango) must be sowed immediately after removing from the fruit, seeds must be sown in raised beds in lines 60 cm apart and 45 cm with in two seeds. The stones are then covered with a mixture of river sand and well decomposed farmyard manure. The seedling will be ready for grafting in 10 to 12 months. After the rootstock is ready the second part needed for grafting is Scion. A scion is a piece of vegetative material taken from a tree that produces the fruit variety you want to graft.<span style="color: #e06666;"> few points to be considered while selecting the scion are :</span></div>
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<li>The Mother plant must be free from pests and diseases, younger mother plants are generally preferred.</li>
<li>The diameter of the scion should be same as that of the rootstock.</li>
<li>The shoot from which the scion is cut must be at least 3 to 4 months old.</li>
<li>The scion must have at least 3 to 4 buds.</li>
<li>Only Sterilized and sharp equipment must be used to cut the scion.</li>
<li>The detached scion must be stored by wrapping them in moist cloth and stored in a cool place.</li>
</ul>
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The style of attaching the scion to the rootstock differs based on the method of grafting employed, please visit this <a href="https://www.agrowikipedia.in/">link</a> to know more about procedures of <a href="https://www.agrowikipedia.in/">Grafting</a>.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Land Preparation :</span></b></div>
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<li>The land must be deep ploughed followed by harrowing, the land must then be leveled, the field must then be leveled maintaining sufficient slope to facilitate drainage of water.</li>
<li>Pits of 1 cubic meter should be dug out, this must be done during the summer, the dug out pits must be filled with mixture of topsoil and 2 kg of farmyard manure. The pits should be applied with savin in order or prevent termite infestation.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Transplanting :</span></b></div>
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<li>Only the best grafted seedlings must be chosen to transplant, the seedlings must be free from pests and diseases.</li>
<li>Grafts must be planted in the centre of pit with ball of earth intact followed by watering and staking.</li>
<li>The graft union must be at least 15 cm above the soil.</li>
<li>This must be done during the cool time of the day, the filed must be irrigated after the transplanting.</li>
<li>The spacing recommendations is as follows : Normal density - 8m *10m, High density planting - 5m * 5m.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Nutrient Management :</span></b></div>
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<li>Nutrient management is a complicated step in Mango cultivation but its also very crucial to manage the nutrition during all stages of the plant in order to maintain regular bearing among the plants. A properly planned nutrition schedule will help in getting higher consistent yields, it also helps in getting considerable yields during the off year. Below is the recommended nutrient schedule for Mango.</li>
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<li>In addition to these application of micro nutrients is also found to boost the yields of mango, Getting the soil tested once every three years and applying the nutrient based on the results is the most efficient way to increase the yields.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Water Management :</span></b></div>
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<li>Frequency of irrigation depends on the soil type, stage of the plant and prevailing climatic conditions.</li>
<li>The irrigation requirements of young and non-bearing trees are different from those of bearing trees. During young and non-bearing period speedy growth of the trees and expeditious development of their leaf canopy are the chief objectives to be achieved.</li>
<li>No irrigation is necessary during the monsoons unless there is prolonged dry spells.</li>
<li>During the first year, the young plants must be watered every 2 to 3 days during the dry season.</li>
<li>Trees which 2 to 3 years old must be watered every 4 to 5 days.</li>
<li>The interval between two irrigation must be gradually increased with the age of the trees.</li>
<li>When the trees are in full bearing stage 2 to 3 irrigation must be given after the fruit set begins at an interval of 4 to 5 days.</li>
<li>If any inter crops are taken during the early years of planting then the irrigation must be planned accordingly.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Weed Management :</span></b></div>
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<li>Manual method of weed control is adopted mango plants are young by employing women labour. Small hand tools (khoorpi) are used for removing weeds in basins and between rows of plants.</li>
<li>When the orchard comes of age between 8 and 10 years, mechanical method of weeding by using bullock drawn implements or tractors and tillers with special weeding tool attachments are employed for effective weed control. The type and nature of tools used in mechanical method depend upon the row spacing adopted in the orchard. And on an average three to four ploughings (machine or bullock drawn) are enough in a year.</li>
<li>Cover cropping can also be practiced in mango orchards to suppress the growth of weeds, it also serves as an additional source of income. The recommended intercrops in mango orchards for summer season are bottle gourd, bitter gourd, onion, chilies, cowpea, black gram and green gram. For winter season, the intercrops suggested are peas, turnip, cauliflower, carrot, radish and gram.</li>
<li>Herbicides can been used in mango to control weeds. Application of Paraquat (3.0kg a.i./ha) or Diuron as pre-emergent treatment gives good control of weeds in mango. Or Bromocil and Dalapon were also effective for controlling dicot and monocot weeds respectively. One spray of Atrazine or Diuron at 2.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergent treatment to soil and one spray of Paraquat as post –emergent spray on weeds at 3.0kg a.i./ha have been found effective for controlling both monocot and dicot weeds in 1 to 5 years old mango orchard.</li>
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<span style="color: #e06666; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , serif; font-size: large;">Pruning and Training :</span></h3>
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The training of mango plants in the initial stages is very essential to give them proper shape.Specially, when the grafts have branched too low, the process of training becomes very important. At least 75 cm of the main stem should be kept free from branching and the first leader of main branch should be allowed after that. The main branches should be spaced in such a way that they grow in different directions and are at least 30 cm apart in order to avoid breakage due to smaller crotch angles and heavy top.</div>
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Proper pruning of mango trees after the harvest gives the best results in terms of disease and pest management, diversion of food materials to the productive shoots, increased photosynthetic activity and increased carbohydrate and starch content. </div>
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<li>The pruning operations must be taken up 20 to 25 days after the harvesting is done. </li>
<li>Any old inflorescence that might have flowered during the previous season must be removed to promote the production of new flowers</li>
<li>Any lower branches that might be touching the soil, soggy, dead, broken branches must be removed, any diseased foliage, trees must be removed. </li>
<li>All unfruitful branches and shoots that are lying within the canopy must be removed to facilitate free circulation of air and Light penetration. </li>
<li>In case of aged trees the top has to be opened by pruning the central stem at the top. A small branch on eastern and western side may be pruned to allow sun light into tree canopy and for proper ventilation.</li>
<li>Paste all the cut ends with 10% Bordeaux paste or with Copperoxychloride paste. Collect the pruned parts and destroy by burning.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Interesting Fact : Only about 0.1 to 0.25 percent of the total flowers produced on a Mango tree mature and develop in fruits. </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Cropping Systems :</span></b></div>
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<li>Taking up <span style="color: #e06666;">intercrops</span> in a mango orchard has several advantages. It helps control weeds, serves as an additional source of income, controls erosion, the inter crops can be used as green manures.</li>
<li>The most suggested inter crops for mango orchard are bhendi, cowpea, potato, cucurbits and leguminous crops like groundnut and bean, dwarf banana and cover crops like sesbania and Crotalaria juncea can be raised and buried in the soil for green manuring. </li>
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<span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;"><b>Plant Protection :</b></span><br />
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1. Disease Management : The most common disease observed in Mango are powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back, Rust, Bacterial canker and Blight other diseases include root rot, sooty mold, scab etc... Click on the Disease to know about their management practices.<br />
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2. Pest Management : The most common pests of Mango are Hoppers, Mealy bugs, mango stem borers, shoot borers, fruit fly, stone weevil, bark eating catter pillar, leaf webber, These insects under severe conditions can cause yield lose up to 70 percent.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Physiological Disorders of Mango :</span></b><br />
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">1. Mango malformation :</span></b><br />
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<li>It is physiological disorder caused by many reasons like fungus, nutritional deficiency, hormones, mites, Virus. It majorly affects the inflorescence (Floral malformation) and sometimes it also infects the green foliage (Vegetative malformation). </li>
<li>Vegetative malformation is most commonly observed in young plants, Affected mango seedlings or young plants develop excessive vegetative branches which have limited growth, swollen and with very short internodes and develop abnormally compact rosette like shoots presenting a bunchy top appearance.</li>
<li>In case of Floral malformation, the affected inflorescence becomes clustered and round. Most of the flowers lack essential organs and don't set fruit and its inflorescence continuously hang on the tree for months, being more green and sturdy.</li>
<li>Control measures include removing, and destroying the infected small plants or plant parts, spraying fungicides like Captan @ 3grams or Bavistin @ 1gram / litre of water, Early deblossoming combined with NAA 20ppm spray during October also reduces this considerably and use of resistant varieties.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">2. Spongy Tissue :</span></b> A non-edible patch of flesh develops in the mesocarp of the fruit and becomes spongy, sour and yellowish is termed as spongy tissue.</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>A Spongy tissue is most likely detected only after cutting the fruit.</li>
<li>Unhydrolised starch due to inactivation of ripening enzyme due to high temperature, convective heat, and post harvest exposure to sunlight are the causes of Spongy tissue.</li>
<li>Control measures : Sod culture ( Growing grasses in between the trees), mulching are found to reduce the incidence of spongy tissue.</li>
<li>Growing resistant varieties like "Ratna", "Arka Puneet".</li>
<li>Harvesting fruits when they are 3/4th mature rather than fully matured ones also reduces this malady.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">3. Fruit Drop </span></b>: Fruit drop is a serious problem faced by mango growers, if not managed, it might cause yield loss up to 50 percent.<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Among 1000s of panicles produced on the tree only a few hundreds of them develop into fruits.</li>
<li>Fruits drop during all the stages of maturity and the maximum drop takes place during the last week of April and first week of May.</li>
<li>The Fruit drop is divided into 3 phases : 1. Pin head drop, 2. Post setting drop and 3. May drop.</li>
<li>The flower drop as well as the fruit drop is primarily due to the formation of an abscission layer at the point of attachment of the fruit with the twig. There are several causes for this and they are divided into internal and external factors.</li>
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1. External Factors : Increased pest and disease incidence specifically powdery mildew, hoppers, mealy bugs and Anthracnose.</div>
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2. Internal Factors : Poor soil, lack of pollination, low stigmatic receptivity, defective perfect flowers,</div>
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abortion of embryo, lack of/ irregular irrigation, competition withing the fruits.</div>
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<li>Control measures : Spraying of 2, 4-D @ 10 ppm or NAA @ 50 ppm at pea stage or marble stage helps in preventing fruit drop, Providing pollenizers for self incompatible types, proper water management provision of wind breaks around the orchards.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Alternate Bearing or Irregular Bearing :</span></b></div>
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<li>Alternate bearing is most troublesome condition faced by the mango growing community. It is a situation where the crops bear a heavy yield in one season/year called the "On year" and bears less or no yield the next year called the "Off year".</li>
<li>The farmers face losses in both On and Off years, In the "on‘ year there is abundant fruiting and the market is flooded with fruits and the prices fall down and In the off year, there is scarcity of fruits for supply to market, prices are highly remunerative but the grower has a very little or no fruits to supply to the market. In some cases the Off year might also get prolonged to next year as well. Hence this condition is not exactly alternate instead is irregular and this problem is most occurred in neglected or poorly managed orchards.</li>
<li>There are many assumptions to the cause of irregular bearing : The habit of bearing heavy and poor or no crop in alternate years is believed to be an inherent character because some varieties, viz., Fazil, Neelum, and Bangalora are regular bearers. An early production of shoots during the first flush (February-April), and an early cessation of the growth in the season seem to be conducive to regular bearing in mango. But in several old and neglected orchards the tree bearing heavily in a year put forth little or no vegetative growth during flowering to fruit maturity, and as such no fruiting wood is available for the following year, which consequently, turns out to be an off year for cropping. </li>
<li>Nutritional deficiencies especially N is believed to beone of the causes of irregular bearing.</li>
<li>Higher level of auxin like substances and an inhibitor (similar to ABA) and lower levels of gibberellins (GA3) like substances.</li>
<li>Adverse climatic factors such as cloudy weather, rains, high humidity, convert an "on" year in to an "off" year by promoting incidence of mango hoppers and diseases like powdery mildew and anthracnose etc., especially during flowering, preventing pollination and damaging the floral parts. Frost and low temperatures during flowering adversely affect fruit set there by turning an "on" year in to "off" year. </li>
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<span style="color: #6aa84f;"><b>Recommended measure to overcome irregular bearing : </b></span></div>
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<li>Planting of varieties which are regular bearers Eg., Totapuri, Rumani, Banglora, Neelum, Mallika, Amrapali and Ratna.</li>
<li>Plough and harrow the orchard twice in a year, in the beginning of the monsoon after harvest and in October. </li>
<li>Get your soil tested every 3 years and apply the fertilizers as per recommended schedule.</li>
<li>After the harvest of the crop, dead and diseased branches and parasitic weed (loranthus) should be cut off and removed.</li>
<li>Deblossoming: Half the no. of flower clusters are removed from the tree in the on year as soon as they emerge. The food reserves of these deblossomed shoots would be utilized by the tree in producing vegetative growths in the spring and summer and mature to produce.</li>
<li>Ringing: A ring of bark of about 1.25cm wide is removed from branches of about 15 cm thicknesses. Ringing causes concentration of large amount of carbohydrates in the branch above the ring and it would put forth blossoms instead of vegetative growth. Ringing has to be done in month of August. This is not advisable as it devitalizes the tree and should not be followed as a regular practice.</li>
<li>Over vigorous trees sould be subjected to induced rest by withholding irrigation with good exposure to sunlight. Application of common salt @ 2.5 kge/tree in September checks vegetative growth causing accumulation of carbohydrates for induction of flowering. This is practiced in over-vigorous trees and not on weak trees.</li>
<li>Pruning: Proper pruning of mango trees after the harvest gives the best results in terms of disease and pest management, diversion of food materials to the productive shoots, increased photosynthetic activity and increased carbohydrate and starch content, early production of new flush that bear the Crop in the next season.</li>
<li>Providing orchards with wind breaks, regular ploughing, and liberal manuring at appropriate intervals and adequate irrigation and other cultural practices are also recommended for regular bearing.</li>
<li>Spraying Ethrel during October at 200 ppm at 20 days interval till flowering appears and Spraying 1% urea immediately after harvest of fruits in rain fed orchards and prophylactic sprays against mango hopper during September- October, also helps in regularity of bearing</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: large;">Harvest : </span></b><br />
Grafted mango usually starts bearing from the 4th to 6th year after planting. The precocious varieties like dasehari start bearing even from the third or fourth year onwards. A grafted mango tree usually continue to bear up to 50 years, but its most prolific years of bearing are generally from the 10 to 14 years. Seedling trees usually take about 8 years to come to bearing but their productive life is much longer.<br />
It is also very important to harvest the mangoes at the right stage otherwise the fruits that are Harested at an immature stage develop white patches and the normal TSS / Acid ratio is also not obtained. On the other hand, if the fruits are harvested when over mature or fully ripe, more microbial and physiological spoilage occurs due to increased susceptibility of fruits, thus reducing the shelf life of the fruits.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #e06666;">Maturity Indices of Mango :</span></b><br />
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<li>Attainment of full size of a variety is indicated by stoppage of increase in size and flesh becomes soft.</li>
<li>The Appearance of bloom (Whitish waxy layer), characteristic colour or spots on the skin and development of typical flavour of a variety are also important indications of maturity.</li>
<li>When a few ripe fruits have fallen on their own accord from the tree, the rest of the fruits are considered sufficiently mature.</li>
<li>The sap which exudes at the stem end on picking a mature fruit is thick and dries quickly.</li>
<li>If the fruit sinks in water, if it is dropped in to water indicates its maturity.</li>
<li>Specific gravity, TSS and pressure tests are also employed for testing the maturity of fruits. Generally a specific gravity of 1.01 and 1.02. TSS of 12 to 15 % and a pressure of 1.75 -2.0 kg. Per sq. cm will give a fair index of maturity.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666;">Harvesting the Fruits :</span></b></div>
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<li>The fruits injured or even slightly bruised during the picking operation losses its keeping quality and becomes unfit for dispatch to distant markets hence the fruits have to picked with utmost care.</li>
<li>The fruits must be hand picked, if the fruits are too high a step ladder must be used.</li>
<li>In no case, the picker should climb up the tree as this practice is harmful both for the tree and the picker.</li>
<li>A small fruit stalk should be kept with the fruit at the time of harvesting helps in keeping the fruits in better condition in transportation and storage.</li>
<li>The fruits should always be harvested and the harvested fruits are placed in canvas bags or padded baskets and carried to the packing house.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f; font-size: large;">Yield :</span></b></div>
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The yield of mango depends on no. of factors like age of the plant, soil fertility, climatic conditions, variety, type of plant material like graft or seedling, management of the orchard etc. A mango tree having an age of 5 years bears about 200 fruits and 10-20 years bears a crop of 500-1000 fruits during an on year. During 20-40 years its yield may range between 1000-3000 fruits.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Interesting Fact - While Mango is known as the " King of Fruits", "Alphonso" is popularly known as king of all the varieties of Mango. </span></b></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-1093083905044982812020-04-04T20:59:00.002+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.419+05:30Ginger (Zingiber officinale)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">About :</span></b><br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PNy_c6wqLSg/XogroZeY04I/AAAAAAAAB4g/llz0MfCeCDwumBLIt6jokunPZ4x9r_0LwCEwYBhgLKs0DAMBZVoDJsEh4Or8B9W68MeKi_UxbMi1uOYYqOU7CXIocDngqH8GpJGcZmpz_HwVbMX-kceit9kJBNJYMwCOdGWhjIem-ymXlYB1uUB-u_rsYTcPGpPxQzk-_WLzdTyVY9NqA-mm2JQW0bKE5MFdWQx6ZoSJuPVE1v5vCk70e6_rXdDk9NlAeo6tOYGtasujSmiPsQRL1FBVbYI_CNkhFqauMrRy0wL7AbSC1F1Jpau2Pyis0YePMYYEl2Mf1XMatm0ObT3G1cvrDS3tQYyIvT04aDHzTcWoliBks-4107E-t9Ec5HK7UyEyC-8ya85F-vdQ2Y82kqurZso2g8AhG3iEwfysA8lEKryqGmxCfKf0PwYxToVXbz5rI2Kubzu5At45PNYvnpf5ZAO0KUb-foKJ6yWzNeWU6QcNfskTInzxTa2TWw-ilJ2nYx8gVzi-QoifYIq7SoOMAOoAecTyfi5Iv7UZo4qY12D-amlGckwrCykN9ghvUNFnwM5VUJliHXNX4QCaUbiY8LSd2sNn1CEpfoTTk1GCAUHdVhuechtnuF-csfA4Po8ehlvG2E4QVtRJLqFvkCHTwTjgGC2-S_J8Jr28S4DLMFB6GsmQw7e6g9AU/s1600/Ginger.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="187" data-original-width="264" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PNy_c6wqLSg/XogroZeY04I/AAAAAAAAB4g/llz0MfCeCDwumBLIt6jokunPZ4x9r_0LwCEwYBhgLKs0DAMBZVoDJsEh4Or8B9W68MeKi_UxbMi1uOYYqOU7CXIocDngqH8GpJGcZmpz_HwVbMX-kceit9kJBNJYMwCOdGWhjIem-ymXlYB1uUB-u_rsYTcPGpPxQzk-_WLzdTyVY9NqA-mm2JQW0bKE5MFdWQx6ZoSJuPVE1v5vCk70e6_rXdDk9NlAeo6tOYGtasujSmiPsQRL1FBVbYI_CNkhFqauMrRy0wL7AbSC1F1Jpau2Pyis0YePMYYEl2Mf1XMatm0ObT3G1cvrDS3tQYyIvT04aDHzTcWoliBks-4107E-t9Ec5HK7UyEyC-8ya85F-vdQ2Y82kqurZso2g8AhG3iEwfysA8lEKryqGmxCfKf0PwYxToVXbz5rI2Kubzu5At45PNYvnpf5ZAO0KUb-foKJ6yWzNeWU6QcNfskTInzxTa2TWw-ilJ2nYx8gVzi-QoifYIq7SoOMAOoAecTyfi5Iv7UZo4qY12D-amlGckwrCykN9ghvUNFnwM5VUJliHXNX4QCaUbiY8LSd2sNn1CEpfoTTk1GCAUHdVhuechtnuF-csfA4Po8ehlvG2E4QVtRJLqFvkCHTwTjgGC2-S_J8Jr28S4DLMFB6GsmQw7e6g9AU/s1600/Ginger.JPG" /></a></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Ginger is one of the earliest known flowering plant widely used as a spice and medicinal crop. </li>
<li>Ginger is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia, the Indians and Chinese have cultivated Ginger for over 5000 years for its medicinal and flavoring properties. </li>
<li>Since ancient times, "Ginger" has been used as a digestive aid, to treat nausea, snake bite, respiratory disorder, common cold and many more. </li>
<li>Due to its wide medicinal properties and unique pungent odor, Ginger had high demand in the export market, it was one of the first spice crop to be exported from Asia. </li>
<li>Ginger is used in many forms like Green, raw and dried form, powdered ginger has high export value, its is also used in oils, tea, tooth paste and preparation of many traditional medicines.</li>
<li>The Pungency in ginger is due to the presence of Ketones mainly the Gingerols which is responsible for the pungency.</li>
<li>The demand for Ginger has been increasing every year and the global production of Ginger was 3.3 million tonnes in 2016 with India being the highest producer.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Cultivation :</span></b></div>
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Ginger is a tropical crop, it is perennial in nature grown for its edible stems called "Rhizome". Rhizome is also called a pseudo stem or modified stem which grows horizontally in the soil from which roots and shoots arise. The plant produces a single stalk which grows up to 90 cm in height covered with leaves arranged in alternate manner. Ginger is propagated through Seed Rhizomes which is obtained from already established Ginger farms, being a tropical crop, Ginger grows well in higher temperatures and humid regions, it is highly sensitive to water logging hence it is not recommended to grow ginger in soils with poor drainage properties. Ginger is an exhaustive crop hence it is not suggested to grow ginger two times in a row on the same land. The crop duration (Sowing to Harvest) of Ginger is 9 to 10 months, if the crop is grown for Green ginger, harvesting can be started from sixth month on wards. </div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Climate and Soil :</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xqc7JVEb2f4/Xoie4O5uJKI/AAAAAAAAB5I/zwmMAYnroewmJfPJs6kZRVc3iJuStDtDgCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/don-shin-HwCKAudFmMs-unsplash.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1060" data-original-width="1600" height="210" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xqc7JVEb2f4/Xoie4O5uJKI/AAAAAAAAB5I/zwmMAYnroewmJfPJs6kZRVc3iJuStDtDgCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/don-shin-HwCKAudFmMs-unsplash.jpg" width="320" /></a>
<li>Ginger is a tropical crop hence can be cultivated in regions with higher temperature. The optimum temperature for Ginger Cultivation is 25 to 38 degrees.</li>
<li>Ginger is cultivated both as a rainfed and irrigated crop. In case of rainfed crop regions with moderate rainfall distributed throughout the year is most suitable. Regions with very high rainfall must be avoided since Ginger is most sensitive to water logging.</li>
<li>The crop is grown at an altitude of 1500 m above the mean sea level.</li>
<li>Ginger grows best in well drained soils with rich humus content, Sandy loam and loamy soils are found to be most suitable for Ginger cultivation.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Seasons and Sowing :</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>In case of Irrigated crop, Ginger can be sown at any time during the year although planting during March favors the crop in terms of climate.</li>
<li>In case of rainfed crop, Ginger must be sown in May.</li>
<li>Ginger is propagated through Seed Rhizomes. The Rhizomes from which seed Rhizomes are obtained must be from a healthy and high yielding plant.</li>
<li>The Seed Rhizomes must be 2.5 to 5 cm in length, must weigh between 20 to 25 grams with at least 2 good buds. The Rhizomes must be free from pests and diseases.</li>
<li>The seed rate varies from region to region and with the method of cultivation adopted. The average seed rate is 2000 kg/ha in case of rainfed and 800 kg/ha in case of irrigated crop.</li>
<li>The Rhizomes must be pre-treated with fungicides to prevent fungal diseases.</li>
<li>The seed rhizomes are placed in shallow pits prepared with a hand hoe at a spacing of 20 cm between the plants and 25 cm between the rows in case of rainfed and 35*45 cm in case of irrigated crop. The pits must be applied with 25 g of well decomposed farmyard manure before sowing.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Interesting Fact - During 14th and 15th Century price for each pound of Ginger was equivalent to the price of a Sheep.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Land Preparation :</span></b></div>
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<li>The land is ploughed 4 to 5 times thoroughly to ensure proper aeration and also to ensure free root penetration.</li>
<li>Beds of 1m width and 15 cm height are formed and a spacing of 40 is maintained in between the ridges.</li>
<li>Soil must be solarized for at least 30 days to prevent outbreak fungal disease like rhizome rot and also nematode infestation.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Nutrient Management :</span></b></div>
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<li>At the time of planting, well decomposed cattle manure or compost @ 25-30 tonnes/ha has to be applied either by broadcasting over the beds prior to planting or applied in the pits at the time of planting. </li>
<li>Application of neem cake at the rate of 2 tonnes/ha at the time of planting helps in reducing the incidence of rhizome rot disease/ nematode and increasing the yield.</li>
<li>The recommended dose of fertilizer is 75:50:50 of N:P:K in case of rainfed crop and 100:75:75 in case of irrigated crop. The fertilizer is applied in 2 split doses, application of Zinc sulfate at the rate of 30 kg/ha is found to significantly increase the yields.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;"> Water management :</span></b><br />
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<li>Ginger is both grown both as a rainfed and irrigated crop although in regions with low or irregular rainfall a combination of rainfed and irrigated crop give best results.</li>
<li>In case of Rainfed crop, is best to plan the sowing such that the expected rainfall coincides with the critical irrigation stages of the crop. </li>
<li>Ginger requires a total rainfall of 1300 to 1500 mm distributed evenly throughout the crop duration.</li>
<li>In regions where annual rainfall exceeds 2200 mm, cultivation of Ginger must be avoided unless the soil has very good drainage.</li>
<li>In regions where rainfall is less than 800 mm annually, supplemental irrigation should be provided at least during the Critical irrigation stages.</li>
<li>In case of Irrigated crop, first irrigation should be given immediately after sowing followed by subsequent irrigation at an interval of 6 to 10 days depending on the field capacity of the soil.</li>
<li>The critical Irrigation stages in Ginger are Germination stage, Rhizome initiation stage (90 to 100 DAS) and Rhizome development stage (135 to 140 DAS). Care has to be taken that the crop get enough water during these stages.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Intercultural Practices :</span></b> </div>
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<b>1</b>. <b>Weed Management - </b>The field is applied with pre-emergent herbicides atleast 2 weeks before planting. Post planting weeding is done before fertilizer application. Depending on the intensity of weed infestation 2 to 4 hand weeding must be done to keep the field free from weeds. Mulching also helps in controlling the weeds.<br />
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<b>2. Earthing up - </b>This step is very essential in Ginger cultivation, it involves digging up of the soil by the side of the plant and piling up the soil around the stem of the plants. This ensures good aeration and loosens up the soil for free penetration of the rhizomes and roots, it also helps in controlling weeds. Earthing up in Ginger is done at 45th and 90th days after planting, it is done 2 to 3 days after weeding.<br />
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<b>3. Mulching - </b>Mulching the ginger beds with green leaves is an essential operation to enhance germination of seed rhizomes and to prevent washing off soil due to heavy rain. This also helps to add organic matter to the soil and conserve moisture during the later part of the cropping season. The first mulching is to be done with green leaves @ 10 - 12 t/ha at the time of planting. It is to be repeated @ 5 t/ha at 40th and 90th day after planting. Use of Lantana camara and Vitex negundo as mulch may reduce the infestation of shoot borer. Cow dung slurry or liquid manure may be poured on the bed after each mulching to enhance microbial activity and nutrient availability.<b> </b><br />
<b><br /></b><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Crop Protection : </span></b><br />
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<b style="color: #6aa84f;">1. Disease Management : </b>Ginger is susceptible to many Fungal and Bacterial diseases, it is necessary to protect the crop from these diseases in order to get higher yields, the diseases can be prevented by use integrated crop protection practices which involves use of cultural methods like adjusting the growing season so as to skip the peak outbreak period of the disease, crop rotation, use of bio-fungicides and Synthetic fungicides. Preventive methods like seed treatment with fungicides must be followed inevitably to prevent the early outbreak of any diseases. The most common disease of Ginger are Soft Rot, Rhizome rot, Bacterial wilt and leaf spot.<br />
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<span style="color: #6aa84f; font-weight: bold;">2. Pest Management : </span>Ginger is attacked by many pests but the most troublesome pests among them are Shoot borer, shoot borer, Rhizome scale, root grubs and also nematodes, these pests can cause yield loses up to 70 percent under severe conditions. Hence it is necessary to take suitable pest control measures so as to maintain the pest population below the economic threshold level.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Interesting Fact - Queen Elizabeth I of England has been credited with the invention of the gingerbread.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Harvest :</span></b><br />
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<li>Ginger crop comes to harvest in 8 to 10 months depending on the variety of the crop, In case of Green ginger crop can be harvested from 6th month.</li>
<li>When the crop is completely matured, the leaves start turning yellow and the whole plants starts drying gradually. </li>
<li>The Rhizomes are harvested by gently lifting the plants and cutting of the aerial part of the plant. Farm tools like Spade, forks can be used to dig up the plants.</li>
<li>The cut Rhizomes are cleaned using clean water, sun dried for 2 days and stored for marketing.</li>
<li>Curing - Curing is defined as removal of moisture from a crop by heat treatment in order to obtain a dried product. Curing in Ginger is done by soaking the Rhizomes in water for 6-7 hours. The rhizomes are then rubbed well to clean the extraneous matter. After cleaning, the rhizomes are removed from water and the outer skin is removed with bamboo splinters having pointed ends. Deep scraping may be avoided to prevent damage of oil cells which are just below the outer skin. The peeled rhizomes are washed and dried in sun uniformly for 1 week. The dry rhizomes are rubbed together to get rid of the last bit of skin or dirt.</li>
<li>A properly managed crop can yield up to 10 tonnes of Raw ginger per acre.</li>
<li>The Recovery percent of Dry Ginger is 18 to 26 percent meaning 10 tonnes of Raw ginger yields 1.8 to 2.6 tonnes of dry ginger.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Cropping Systems :</span></b><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Crop rotation is widely followed in ginger because it enables the soil to recharge, helps controlling pests and diseases. The crops most commonly rotated with ginger are tapioca, ragi, paddy, gingelly, maize and few other vegetables.</li>
<li>Ginger is also grown as an intercrop in coconut, arecanut, coffee and orange plantations.</li>
<li>Crop rotation of Ginger with tomato, potato, chillies, brinjal and peanut should be avoided since these plants play hosts for the wilt causing organism, "Ralstonia solanacearum".</li>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-70435488973912404532020-02-18T13:13:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.426+05:30Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Cabbage is a popular leafy vegetable cultivated as an annual crop for its dense buds called the "heads" it comes in few colours (White, pale green, purple and red) although the white cabbage is the most commonly cultivated type. Cabbage is one of the most important vegetable crop occupying the second place among the most produced vegetable crop after potato. It is a rich source of Vit - A, C, K and minerals like potassium, calcium and sodium.<br />
The exact place of origin is not clear but it is believed that cabbage originated somewhere in Europe around 3500 BC. Cabbage is widely cultivated and consumed around the globe, it is most desired for its natural spicy flavor, rich nutrients and dietary fibers, it also has a certain amino acid which is anti-inflammatory in nature. Cabbage consumed in various forms: It is eaten raw, used in pickles, stews, rolls, soups etc.. Sauerkraut is a very famous food product obtained by fermenting chopped cabbages. The global annual production of Cabbage is over 70 million tonnes with China being the leading producer followed by India.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Few Points about Cabbage :</span></b><br />
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<li>Cabbage is a C-4 and long day plant.</li>
<li>Cabbage is a temperate crop meaning it grows best under cooler climate.</li>
<li>The plants can either produce smooth surfaced or crinkled leaves although the smooth surfaced type of cabbages is widely grown.</li>
<li>The Stem of cabbage is very short , the height of the plant is generally between 3 to 4 inches.</li>
<li>The Outer leaves are generally larger than the inner leaves, the inner leaves are immature and curl inward toward the center forming into a dense ball called the "Head" which is the only edible part of Cabbage. The weight of the head may vary from 0.4 to 3 kg.</li>
<li>The flavor in cabbage is due to a compound called "Sinigrin" which is a glucoside generally found in most of the cole crops.</li>
<li>The duration of the crop varies depending on the variety and it is between 90 to 120 days from transplant.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Cultivation</span></b></div>
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Cabbage is a cold season crop requires cool and moist climate for best results, hence it can be cultivated through the year in regions with temperate climate, in tropical regions where temperature is high the crop loses its flavor and the curling of the leaves is also affected hence it is best to sow cabbage during October in tropical regions.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Climate and Soil </span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Q0fcdvw42NI/XkuL1WAa3MI/AAAAAAAAB1o/_z19A40ys3kMyiGEGMvsCO3iMSRL79tBgCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/arnaldo-aldana-HfH5yd70ox8-unsplash.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="266" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Q0fcdvw42NI/XkuL1WAa3MI/AAAAAAAAB1o/_z19A40ys3kMyiGEGMvsCO3iMSRL79tBgCLcBGAsYHQ/s400/arnaldo-aldana-HfH5yd70ox8-unsplash.jpg" width="400" /></a>
<li>Cabbage is a cool season crop, it grows best in regions where temperature is between 15 to 20 degrees, the crop also has substantial resistance to frost.</li>
<li>The crop can be grown in wide range of soils but heavy sandy soils with rich organic matter is considered for better yields. </li>
<li>The optimum pH for capsicum is 6 to 6.5. Soils with good drainage is known to produce better results.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Season and Seeds</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Cabbage can be grown throughout the year in regions were temperature remains below 25 degrees throughout the year. But in regions where the temperatures are relatively high cabbage is either sowed during June - July or September - October.</li>
<li>The seeds selected for sowing must be of suitable variety, must be free from impurities, must be pre-treated with fungicides.</li>
<li>Cabbage is generally cultivated through transplanting the seedlings raised in designated nursery areas.</li>
<li>Seed Rate : Early Season - 500 g /ha , Late Season - 400 g/ha.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Test weight of Cabbage - 1000 seeds weight - 4 grams.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Nursery Management</span></b></div>
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<li>The Nursery area must be a well protected free from pests and weeds.</li>
<li>The nursery beds must be applied with well decomposed farmyard manure at the rate of 3kg/sq.meter.</li>
<li>The seeds must either be treated with Captan or Thiram at recommended dosages for protection against fungal diseases.</li>
<li>The seeds must be sown 3 cm apart with 8 cm gap in between the lines.</li>
<li>The seeds must be sown at a depth of 2 cm.</li>
<li>The Beds must be irrigated with rose can when required.</li>
<li>The seedlings will be ready to transplant in 35 to 40 days.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Field Preparation</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The field is ploughed 2 to 3 times using power tiller.</li>
<li>Planking has to be done during the last ploughing to make friable soil bed for transplanting.</li>
<li>Raised beds of 30 cm height , 1 m breadth and 5 m length should be prepared for transplanting.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Transplantation</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>35 to 40 days old seedlings with at least 4 leaves must be selected for transplanting.</li>
<li>The selected seedlings must be healthy, vigorous, free from pests and diseases.</li>
<li>Both field and the nursery area must be irrigated prior to transplantation to avoid shock.</li>
<li>Transplantation must be avoided during sunny atmosphere.</li>
<li>Seedlings must be transplanted at a spacing of 45 cm between the plants and 45 cm between the rows.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Fertilizer Management </span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The field must be applied with 12 to 15 tonnes of well decomposed farmyard manure during the land preparation.</li>
<li>Recommended dose of fertilizer of Cabbage is 120:60:100 kg/ha of N, P and K respectively.</li>
<li>Half the dose of N with full dose of P and 3/4th dose of K should be applied as basal dose during transplantation. The rest of N and K most be applied as top dressing 45 days after transplanting.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Water Management</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Drip irrigation is recommended for cabbage cultivation. The lateral pipes must be laid out in between the two rows with nozzles of discharge capacity 4 lt/hr fitted alternatively at an interval of 45 cm.</li>
<li>Frequency of irrigation depends on the climate. Irrigation must be planned based on the visual observation of the plants and the climate so that the land remains moist throughout since Cabbage is most sensitive to drought.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Intercultural operations</span></b></div>
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<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Weeding - 2 to 3 hand weedings is necessary through out the crop duration, keeping the land weed free during the first 30 days of transplant is very necessary. Alternatively use of pre-emergence herbicides can also be done.</li>
<li>Earthing Up - Soon after the second weeding around 45 DAT earthing up has to be done by digging up the soil in between the rows and piling them towards the stem of the plants.</li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Plant Protection </span></b></div>
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Cabbage is attacked by at least a dozen pest and diseases, under severe cases yield lose up to 70 percent can be expected.</div>
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<b>1. Pest Management :</b> The most trouble some pest of Cabbage are Tobacco cut worm, diamond back moth, abhids, white flies, leaf webber. the pest must be controlled by using suitable cultural and chemical methods.</div>
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<b>2. Diseases Management : </b>The most common diseases of Cabbage are Damping off, Black rot,</div>
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powdery mildew. Suitable fungicides at recommended doses must be used to manage the diseases.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Harvest and Yield</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Harvesting Cabbage at the right time is very important since early harvest may result in reduced yield and soft heads which makes post harvest handling difficult whereas delaying the harvest may result in split head.</li>
<li>The crop has to be harvested when heads are fully mature and firm. No. of days to harvest may vary from 90 to 150 days depending on the variety and season.</li>
<li>Harvesting should be done using a knife by gently bending the heads and cutting the stalk as close as possible towards the head yet retaining 2 base leaves because the base leaves acts as cushion for the heads and make post harvest handling easier.</li>
<li>Yield, a properly managed crop may yield up to 50 tonnes per ha with average head weight of 2 kg.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Facts about Cabbage</span></b></div>
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<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">The biggest ever cabbage was the cabbage displayed in an Alaska fair by Steve Hubacek. The cabbage weighed 56 kg , the head measured 21 inches wide with the maximum leaf length of 5 feet.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">During early times Chinese believed that Cabbage could cure baldness in men.</span></b></li>
</ul>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-72192903013124611182020-01-17T11:28:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.432+05:30Crop Production<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-y9Htrdknppo/XiFIYiyBXyI/AAAAAAAABzI/6dDn56RZJvggipeNBdUGEPEL6C-1Bo9dwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/file7679yyeadoh1ebn9878g-1568971945.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="431" data-original-width="700" height="246" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-y9Htrdknppo/XiFIYiyBXyI/AAAAAAAABzI/6dDn56RZJvggipeNBdUGEPEL6C-1Bo9dwCLcBGAsYHQ/s400/file7679yyeadoh1ebn9878g-1568971945.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
Crop Production - It is the branch of Agriculture dealing with growing crops for economic purposes.<br />
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The aim of crop production is to grow <b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">maximum quantity of yield</span></b> in the lowest possible area by utilizing minimum amount of both financial and natural resources with a minimal effect on the environment.</div>
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In order to achieve this, there are few important steps which when followed in a systematic way help in maximizing the yield, all these steps collectively are called "Crop Production".</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 1 : Site Selection</span></b></div>
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This step is not a repetitive process and it is a one time only decision that is taken by an Individual/Farmer at the beginning of his farming enterprise. Although The purchase of the land by an individual depends on many factors like the cost, location, inheritance etc... the individual must make sure the site has at least near favorable conditions for the crop production. Few of the important factors to be considered while site selection for setting up of a farm are :</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Climatic Factors</span></b> - Climatic refers to the atmospheric condition of a particular region over a small range of time, the climatic factors like Rainfall, Temperature, wind velocity, light intensity have a direct influence on the yield of the crops, hence while choosing the site, the farmer must make sure the the climatic factors are in the optimum range for crop production. Most crops grow well in temperature ranging between 20 to 35 degrees although some crops perform well in temperature as low as 8 degree and as high as 45 degrees. Most plants perform well in the Relative humidity of range 50 to 70 percent and wind velocity of range 3 to 5 km/hr.</li>
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Topography</span></b> - Topography of a land refers to the arrangement natural features of that particular land like altitude, slope etc. Topography may affect crop production since features like slope of a land may influence soil erosion which in turn affects the crop production. There are also other features like altitude which also affect Agriculture.</li>
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Soil</span></b> - Soil is one of the most important factors to be considered while selecting a site since soil is the base for all agricultural activities. Features of soil like pH, Water holding capacity, texture, structure, soil microbes, alkalinity, salinity, infestation of weeds etc have to be considered while purchasing a land.</li>
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Water Availability</span></b> - Water is the prime requirement for Crop growth, in areas where the rainfall is below requirement irrigation becomes the primary source of water for the crops, also availability of alternate source of water helps in cultivating crops during off season. Considering the available water resources is very important in site selection.</li>
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Socio-Economic Factors</span></b> - These include factors like availability of labor, infrastructure, transportation facilities, telecommunication facilities, electricity, ease of accessibility of agri-commodities, accessibility to medical facilities. All these factors influence the total outcome of crop production process. </li>
<li><span style="color: #6aa84f; font-weight: bold;">Government Policies </span><span style="color: #444444;">- Policies made by the government of a particular region may greatly effect the vegetation of that region, hence the government policies must also be considered.</span></li>
<li><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Economic Factors</span></b><span style="color: #444444;"> - These factors include cost and ease of resources like labor, electricity, transport and the cost of the land itself.</span></li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 2 : Land Preparation</span></b></div>
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A good crop needs a finely tilled land to produce maximum yield, a well prepared land offers little resistance for the root growth, enhances soil properties, improves soil aeration, controls weeds and also may help in controlling few soil borne pests and pathogens. Land preparation involves step like ploughing, harrowing etc.. All these steps must be done prior to the planting of the crop for good crop growth.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 3 : Selection of the crop and Season.</span></b></div>
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Determining the Crop and the season in to be grown can help in overcoming the climatic and other factors that cannot be altered by man, for example in areas where temperature is high temperature tolerant crops like Ragi, bajra must be grown, in colder regions cole crops most be grown, choosing right time of sowing will also help in skipping the peak period of certain pests and diseases thereby reducing the cost of production. Apart from these factors the decision made must also be based on economic factors like the the crop that has highest demand or the time of the year where the crop fetches the highest price.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 4 : Seeds and Sowing </span></b></div>
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Selection of suitable variety of seeds will help in solving half of the problem of production like higher yield, quality of fruits, resistance to diseases and pests etc... Characters of crops like high yielding capacity, fruit quality, early maturity etc are majorly governed by the genetic make of the plants and less influenced by the environmental factors, hence a suitable variety of crop has to be chosen before taking up cultivation. The selected seeds must also be free from physical impurities, must be rigid, free from pests and diseases. Sowing must be done after land is brought a fine tilth, there are many types of sowing like broadcasting, dibbling, drilling, some crops involve raising young seedling in nursery areas and then transplanting the seedlings to the main field. Suitable inter -row and inter crop spacing must be followed in requirement with the crop.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 5 : Nutrient management</span></b> </div>
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Plants need 17 essential elements for their growth, some of them required in major quantities, these are called major nutrients, some are required in minor quantities and are called minor elements, but all of the 17 elements are necessary for the plants yield up to their fullest potential, absence of any of these may affect the growth of the plants. Soil may not always contain sufficient quantity of these essential nutrients to provide for the plants, hence it necessary to supplement the crops with fertilizer so as to get good yields.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 6 : Irrigation management </span></b></div>
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Water is the prime requirement for the growth of the plants, water forms major portion of the composition of all living cells. Water helps in maintaining turgidity of plant cells, helps in nutrient up take by the plants and many more, hence it is necessary to make sure that the plants get adequate water through out its crop period. In areas where rainfall is below required level water has to be delivered manually, the water has to be delivered to the plants in accordance with their requirement and other environmental factors like temperature, field capacity.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 7 : Inter-cultural Operations</span></b><br />
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<li><span style="color: #6aa84f; font-weight: bold;">Weeding : </span><span style="color: #444444;">Weeding is an important intercultural operation in crop production process, weeds are the undesired plants that grow within the field and compete with the main crop for space and nutrients which result in overall performance of the crops. Weeds can cause yield loss up to 60 percent, they may also play host to many pests and diseases. Hence controlling weeds is necessary. Weeding is done either manually with the help of equipment like hoe, spade etc or with the help of machinery like inter cultivator, rotavator or with the help of pre and post - emergence herbicides. Depending on the duration and physical characteristics of the crop, series of weeding may be necessary.</span></li>
<li><b style="color: #6aa84f;">Mulching :</b><span style="color: #444444;"> Mulching is the process of covering the rows of crops with materials like polythene sheets, dry farm waste in order to conserve soil moisture. Mulching also helps in controlling weeds and few soil borne pests.</span><b style="color: #6aa84f;"> </b></li>
<li><span style="color: #6aa84f; font-weight: bold;">Thinning and Gap Filling : </span><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Thinning</span></b><span style="color: #444444;"> is the process of removing excess plant in a plant row so as to prevent the plants from competing with each other. </span><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Gap Filling</span></b><span style="color: #444444;"> is the process of planting the empty spots in a row or replacing any weak seedling with new seedling.</span></li>
<li><b style="color: #6aa84f;">Earthing Up :</b><span style="color: #444444;"> It is a process of digging up the soil around the crop rows and using the soil to make a heap around the stems of the plants, it helps in providing secondary support to the plants, improves soil aeration, controls weeds.</span></li>
<li><b style="color: #6aa84f;">Training and Pruning - </b><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Training</span></b><span style="color: #444444;"> is the process controlling the physical growth characteristics of plants like direction of growth, length and size. Training is done in many ways like nipping, topping and it all depends on the type of crop, training also involves providing physical support the plants, It is mainly done to improve the plant appearance, maintain good flowering and improving the quality and quantity of the yield. </span><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Pruning</span></b><span style="color: #444444;"> is the process of removing excess foliage, old and diseased foliage from the plants in order to keep the growing area free.</span></li>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 8 : Plant Protection</span> </b></div>
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The plants are susceptible to many pests and diseases that feed on plants and cause severe yield loss. Plant protection is a necessary measure to be taken in order to keep the population of pests and diseases below economic threshold level. Plant protection involves protection of plants from pest and diseases. This can be done by many methods, but the most commonly used method is the use of chemicals.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Step - 9 : Harvesting</span></b> </div>
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Harvesting is defined as collecting the economic part of a crop when it is ready (desired stage to sell) in order to market. Harvesting is done in many different ways depending on the type of crop, it is either done using hands or using the help of tools like sickle, secateurs etc or using machinery like paddy harvester etc.<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-20524170359524192212020-01-10T11:36:00.000+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.438+05:30Bio-Fertlizers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Bio-Fertilizers are substances that contain living organisms that help crop plants’ uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil which augment the extent of availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants.. Very often microorganisms are not as efficient in natural surroundings as one would expect them to be and therefore artificially multiplied cultures of efficient selected microorganisms play a vital role in accelerating the microbial processes in soil. Ex - Azatobactor, Azospirullim, Rhizobium etc.<br />
With the introduction of green revolution technologies the modern agriculture is getting more and more dependent upon the steady supply of synthetic inputs (mainly fertilizers), which are products of fossil fuel (coal+ petroleum). Adverse effects are being noticed due to the excessive and imbalanced use of these synthetic inputs. This situation has lead to identifying harmless inputs like biofertilizers. Use of such natural products like biofertilizers in crop cultivation will help in safeguarding the soil health and also the quality of crop products.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Advantage of Bio-Fertilizers :</span></b><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Bio-Fertilizers are cost effective, eco-friendly supplements of synthetic fertilizers.</li>
<li>Application of Bio-fertilizers Increases crop yield by 20-30%.</li>
<li>Since the organisms fix atmospheric nitrogen and phosphorous, it reduces the 25% of use of synthetic fertilizers and there by reducing the overall cost incurred.</li>
<li>The microbes also secrete several beneficial enzymes that stimulate plant growth.</li>
<li>They also provide protection against some soil borne pathogens and against drought.</li>
<li>They improve biological properties of the soil.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Methods of Application of Bio-Fetilizers :</span></b></div>
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<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Seed treatment - Seeds are suspended and mixed in a solution of the Bio-fertilizer based on the instructions provided on the label of the commercial bio fertilizer, the seeds are thoroughly mixed with hands untill a uniform coat is formed on all the seed. The seeds are later dried under shade and sowed immediately.</li>
<li>Root Dipping -A solution of Biofertilizer is made by mixing sufficient quantity of Bio-Fertilizer with water (Refer to the label on the pack) the roots of seedlings are dipped in the solution for 30 minutes or more and transplanted immediately.</li>
<li>Soil Treatment - 5 kg of bio fertilizer per acre is suspended in 10 liters of water & mixed thoroughly with 80-100 kg of FYM. The mix is then uniformly applied over the field.</li>
</ol>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Based on the Type and Nutrient provided, Bio-Fertilizers can be classified into :</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></b>
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Sl.no<o:p></o:p></div>
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Groups<o:p></o:p></div>
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Examples<o:p></o:p></div>
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N2 Fixing Bio-Fertlizers<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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Free living<o:p></o:p></div>
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Azatobactor, Beijerinkia, Anabaena, Nostoc<o:p></o:p></div>
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2<o:p></o:p></div>
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Symbiotic<o:p></o:p></div>
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Rhizobium, Azolla<o:p></o:p></div>
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Associative Symbiotic<o:p></o:p></div>
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Azospirullum<o:p></o:p></div>
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P-Solublizing Bio-Fertilizers<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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Bacteria<o:p></o:p></div>
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Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus circulans, Pseudomonas striata<o:p></o:p></div>
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Fungi<o:p></o:p></div>
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Penicillium sp, Aspergillus awamori<o:p></o:p></div>
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P-Mobilizing Bio-Fertilizers<o:p></o:p></div>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
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Arbuscular mycorrhiza<o:p></o:p></div>
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Glomus sp.,Gigaspora sp.,Acaulospora sp.,<br />
Scutellospora sp. & Sclerocystis sp.<o:p></o:p></div>
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2<o:p></o:p></div>
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Ectomycorrhiza<o:p></o:p></div>
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Laccaria sp., Pisolithus sp., Boletus sp., Amanita sp.<o:p></o:p></div>
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3<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ericoid mycorrhizae<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td nowrap="" style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 255pt;" valign="bottom" width="340"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Pezizella ericae<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 19.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;"><td nowrap="" style="border: 1pt solid; height: 19.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 26pt;" valign="bottom" width="44"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
4<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td nowrap="" style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 19.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 151pt;" valign="bottom" width="201"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Orchid mycorrhiza<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td nowrap="" style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 19.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 255pt;" valign="bottom" width="340"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Rhizoctonia solani<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13;"><td colspan="3" nowrap="" style="border: 1pt solid; height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 6in;" valign="bottom" width="585"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
Micronutrient Fixing Bio-Fertilizers<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 20.25pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14;"><td nowrap="" style="border: 1pt solid; height: 20.25pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 26pt;" valign="bottom" width="44"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td nowrap="" style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 20.25pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 151pt;" valign="bottom" width="201"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Silicate and Zinc Solubilizers<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td nowrap="" style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 20.25pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 255pt;" valign="bottom" width="340"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Baccilus Spp<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-irow: 15;"><td colspan="3" nowrap="" style="border: 1pt solid; height: 15.75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 6in;" valign="bottom" width="585"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 19.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 16; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"><td nowrap="" style="border: 1pt solid; height: 19.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 26pt;" valign="bottom" width="44"><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td nowrap="" style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 19.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 151pt;" valign="bottom" width="201"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Pseudomonas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid; border-top: none; height: 19.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 255pt;" valign="bottom" width="340"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Pseudomonas fluorescens<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Precautions to be taken while Applying Bio-Fertilizers :</span></b><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Biofertilizer packets need to be stored in cool and dry place away from direct sunlight and heat.</li>
<li>Right combinations of biofertilizers have to be used.</li>
<li>As Rhizobium is crop specific, one should use for the specified crop only.</li>
<li>Other chemicals should not be mixed with the biofertilizers.</li>
<li>While purchasing one should ensure that each packet is provided with necessary information like name of the product, name of the crop for which intended, name and address of the manufacturer, date of manufacture, date of expiry, batch number and instructions for use.</li>
<li>The packet has to be used before its expiry, only for the specified crop and by the recommended method of application.</li>
<li>Biofertilizers are live product and require care in the storage</li>
<li>Both nitrogenous and phosphatic biofertilizers are to be used to get the best results.</li>
<li>It is important to use biofertilizers along with chemical fertilizers and organic manures.</li>
<li>Biofertilizers are not replacement of fertilizers but can supplement plant nutrient requirements.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Vermicompost</span></b><br />
Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and other earthworms, to create a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicompost contains water-soluble nutrients and is an excellent, nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is used in farming and small scale sustainable, organic farming.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Advantages of Using Vermicompost :</span></b><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients.</li>
<li>Provides excellent effect on overall plant growth, encourages the growth of new</li>
<li>shoots / leaves and improves the quality and shelf life of the produce.</li>
<li>Vermicompost is free flowing, easy to apply, handle and store and does not have bad</li>
<li>odour.</li>
<li>It improves soil structure, texture, aeration, and waterholding capacity and prevents</li>
<li>soil erosion.</li>
<li>Vermicompost is rich in beneficial micro flora such as a fixers, P- solubilizers,</li>
<li>cellulose decomposing micro-flora etc in addition to improve soil environment.</li>
<li>Vermicompost contains earthworm cocoons and increases the population and</li>
<li>activity of earthworm in the soil.</li>
<li>It neutralizes the soil protection.</li>
<li>It prevents nutrient losses and increases the use efficiency of chemical fertilizers.</li>
<li>Vermicompost is free from pathogens, toxic elements, weed seeds etc.</li>
<li>Vermicompost minimizes the incidence of pest and diseases.</li>
<li>It enhances the decomposition of organic matter in soil.</li>
<li>It contains valuable vitamins, enzymes and hormones like auxins, gibberellins etc.</li>
</ul>
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Azolla </span></b><br />
Azolla is a water fern. It fixes atmospheric nitrogen into the soil with the help of blue green algae by symbiosis process. Its application improves soil health and soil fertility. Azolla suppresses weed growth, reduces loss of applied chemical Nitrogen fertilizer. Azolla biofertilizer technology is simple, economic and ecofriendly. In rice field Azolla grown once before or after planting can produce upto 25 tons of fresh biomass and contribute upto 50 kg N/ha. Azolla grown once during the cropping season can easily supply 20-40 kg N/ha. Azolla can be used as a feed for poultry, duckery, fish and cattle.<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-16084740338626070742020-01-09T21:43:00.002+05:302021-04-29T22:38:43.087+05:30Tomato Cultivation (Solanum lycopersicum)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<hr color="Grey" width="100%" />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-00t_YpTJ41Y/XhcbzF5f3rI/AAAAAAAABx4/uHezU9in7j0tW0L18OTR6MrofwYesfuWQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Tomato.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="208" data-original-width="261" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-00t_YpTJ41Y/XhcbzF5f3rI/AAAAAAAABx4/uHezU9in7j0tW0L18OTR6MrofwYesfuWQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Tomato.JPG" /></a>
</div>
Tomato is a flowering plant belonging to the family "Solanaceae", it is
mainly cultivated for its edible fruits although it is botanically called a
berry. It is believed to have originated in Mexico, the Aztecs used tomatoes
in their cooking at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and
after the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time after their
contact with the Aztecs, they brought the plant to Europe. From there, the
tomato was introduced to other parts of the European-colonized world during
the 16th century. Tomato is the second most produced vegetable crop after
Potato and it is desired for its nutritive value, anti-oxidant properties and
flavor. Tomato holds the first place among all other canned vegetables. Tomato
is consumed in many ways, although major part of the production is used for
producing processed products like sauce, ketchup, soups etc.., the fruits are
also consumed directly as salads, served as cooked vegetable and in many
domestic dishes. Tomato is rich in Vitamins and minerals, also contains bunch
of antioxidants, apart from this, the huge demand that exists for the
processed products of tomato makes it one of the most important vegetable crop
of the world. The global production of Tomato is estimated to be around 20
million tonnes with China being the leading producer followed by India and
USA.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Few Points about Tomato :</span></b><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Tomato is a C-3 and Day-neutral plant.</li>
<li>Tomato plants can grow 4 feet to 40 feet depending on the variety.</li>
<li>
Tomato plant produce large number of branches spreading up to 200 cm.
</li>
<li>
The Vine of tomato is pubescent meaning the plant is covered with hairs,
these facilitate in the vining process by transforming into roots whenever
they come in contact with the soil.
</li>
<li>
The fruits of tomato is called a Berry, is generally red or orange yellow
in colour, the may either oval or round shaped.
</li>
<li>
Tomatoes are grown mostly as annuals, although the indeterminate varieties
perennial in nature, they are grown as annuals.
</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Cultivation</span></b>
</div>
<div>
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fnO32D8Hywk/XhccvpGNXZI/AAAAAAAAByE/ADS6TvgKzJMzesygcMPo5ZtFN5VrVF4yACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/photo-1536500576323-b9a2af3a6c61.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="501" data-original-width="750" height="266" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fnO32D8Hywk/XhccvpGNXZI/AAAAAAAAByE/ADS6TvgKzJMzesygcMPo5ZtFN5VrVF4yACLcBGAsYHQ/s400/photo-1536500576323-b9a2af3a6c61.jpg" width="400" /></a>Tomato is a warm weather crop requires temperatures between 21 to 26 but
due to the development hybrids and varieties tomato is now can be cultivated
throughout the year inside Poly houses, the plant can be be grown in all
types of soil that have good drainage as it is most sensitive to water
logging.
</div>
<div>
<br />
</div>
<div>
Based on the growing habit, Tomato is classified into :
</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>
Determinate type -These varieties are bushy in nature and the terminal
buds ends with floral bud and further its vegetative growth is checked
and are also called as Self topping or self pruning types. The plants
might grow up to 8 feet in height and are annual in nature.
</li>
<li>
Indeterminate type - These varieties are vines in which the terminal
buds ends with a leafy bud and continue its vegetative growth, the
plants can grow up to 50 feet in height and are perennial in nature.
</li>
<li>
Semi-Determinate type - These are Semi-Dwarf plants whose growing habit
lies in between that of Determinate and Indeterminate type of
plants.
</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Climate :</span></b>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
Tomato is a warm season crop, hence it needs sub-tropical climate for
optimum growth.
</li>
<li>
The temperature must between 21 to 26 during the day and 15 to 20 degree
during night.
</li>
<li>
Tomato needs high light intensity for maximum results, low light
intensity results in poor fruit set and pigmentation.
</li>
<li>
Regions with temperature above 35 degree with humidity lower than 50 %
should be avoided as it affects the fruit set.
</li>
<li>The optimum humidity for good growth of Tomato is 60 to 70%.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Soil</span></b>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
Tomato can be grown all most all types of soil, the best results is
obtained in sandy loam soil.
</li>
<li>
The soil must have good drainage system since the crop is most
sensitive to water logging.
</li>
<li>The soil pH must be of range 5.5 to 6.8. </li>
</ul>
</div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Seeds, Sowing and Season :</span></b>
</div>
<div>
Tomato can be grown through out the year although the most commonly followed
time for sowing is either May-July or Nov-Dec.
</div>
<div>
<br />
</div>
<div>
Seeds - Tomato seeds are very light and about 200 grams of seeds are
necessary for 1 acre of land.
</div>
<div>
The seeds are sown a depth of 2 to 3 cm in nursery and raised for 15 to 20
days and then transplanted to main field.
</div>
<div>
<br />
</div>
<div>
<span style="color: blue;"></span><br />
<div style="border: 1px solid black; padding: 16px;">
<span style="color: #cc0000;"><b>Test weight of Tomato :</b></span><b style="color: #cc0000;"> 3-4 grams/1000 seeds</b>
</div>
<div>
<br />
</div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Nursery management : </span></b>Good quality seedlings always result in better yields, higher immunity
and overall performance of the plants hence nursery management is an
important step in Tomato cultivation.
</div>
<br />
<li>
Tomatoes are grown either by directly sowing the seeds or transplanting
already established seedlings grown in nursery onto the main field.
Although direct sowing method is very uncommon and not recommended.
</li>
<li>
The seeds used for raising the seedlings must be of suitable variety for
the agro-climate and also must be free from physical impurities, Seeds can
be treated with fungicides and pesticides and Bio-Fertilizers for better
results.
</li>
<li>
Seedlings are raised either on raised nursery beds with 2 % slope or in
protrays of 98 cavities. In case of nursery beds seeds are sowed in lines
with a spacing of 5 cm in between the lines, It is recommended to raise
the seedlings under protected structure with a 50 percent insect proof
nylon net to protect the seedlings from pests.
</li>
<li>
The raised beds are applied with well decomposed FYM and a mixture of
N:P:K for healthy and vigorous seedlings.
</li>
<li>
Care has to be taken to prevent the entry of rodents and the area of the
nursery has to be kept clean, free from debris and water stagnation.
</li>
<li>
Care has to be taken to prevent the entry of rodents and the area of the
nursery has to be kept clean, free from debris and water stagnation.
</li>
<li>
Prior to sowing seedlings must be treated with Carbendizium at the rate of
2g/kg in case of non-certified seeds.
</li>
<li>
In case of Protrays, each cell of the tray is filled with sterilzed
cocopeat, sometimes a mixture of protrays and farmyard manure is used. One
seed is sown in each cell at a depth of 2 cm.
</li>
<li>The beds have to be watered using rose can every day.</li>
<li>
2 days after the germination the beds or the portrays have to be drenched
with 5 percent 19 ALL solution.
</li>
<li>
Spray 5 percent solution of neem oil on the plants or any systemic
insecticide 2 days before the transplant.
</li>
<li>
In both cases the seedlings will be ready for transplant in 25 to 30 days.
</li>
<br />
<div>
<br />
</div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Land Preparation :</span></b><br />
<div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
Ploughing is done thoroughly untill the land is brought to fine
tilth.
</li>
<li>
The field is applied with 10 tonnes of well decomposed FYM along
with Azospirullum and Phospobacteria .
</li>
<li>
Ridges and furrows are made 60 cm apart and the field is irrigated
at least 2 days before transplant.
</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Transplanting </span></b>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
25 to 30 day old seedlings that are at least 1 feet tall are chosen
for transplanting.
</li>
<li>
The seedlings must be irrigated lightly before transplant to avoid
transplantation shock.
</li>
<li>
The roots of the seedlings can be dipped with Bio-fertilizers or
fungicides.
</li>
<li>
The seedlings are planted at the side of every ridge, a spacing of
60*45 cm is generally followed.
</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Fertilizer Management :</span></b>
</div>
</div>
<div>
Recommended dose of fertilizer for Tomato is 150:80:80kg/acre of N:P:K
respectively, Nitrogen is very important for tomato growth since
N-deficiency may lead to poor auxin production and lead to blossom end
rot. The entire dose of P and K along with half the dose of N is applied
as the basal dose, rest of the N should be applied in 3 split doses as
top dressing starting 30 days after transplant at 15 days intervals.
</div>
<div>
The Micro nutrient like Boron and Zinc should also be applied, they can
either be applied to the soil or by foliar sprays.
</div>
<div>
<br />
</div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Water Management : </span></b>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
Tomato is a deep rooted crop, the roots can go as deep as 6 feet,
hence the plant can tolerate drought up to a certain extent.
</li>
<li>
But care has to be taken not to irrigate the crop too much since the
crop is most sensitive to water logging, also prolonged dry spells
may result in cracked fruits.
</li>
<li>
The field must be irrigated once every 3 to 4 days in case of Summer
crop and once every 15 days in case of Winter crop.
</li>
<li>
Drip irrigation is most recommended for tomato cultivation since it
saves water and also can be used in fertigation.
</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Intercultural Operations : </span></b>
</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
Mulching - Mulching is with the help of 25 micron black LDPE sheets,
this helps in conserving moisture, suppress weed growth.
</li>
<li>
Earthing Up - 2 or 3 shallow hoeing is done in order to improve the
soil aeration, this also helps in suppressing the weeds.
</li>
<li>
Pinching - The lateral shoots of the plants are periodically pinched
to promote more bushy growth.
</li>
<li>Initial flowers are also removed for long term good yields.</li>
<li>
The terminal flowers are sometimes removed in order to achieve
uniform ripening.
</li>
<li>
Pruning has to be done frequently in order to remove the excess
foliage, so as to keep the growing area clear which in turn improve
aeration, prevents trapping of moisture in between the foliage.
</li>
<li>
Tomato stems are quite weak and they cannot support the bushy
foliage by itself, hence the plants must be supported by staking.
The staking is done in many ways. The most common method used is by
installing support stick and tying up the plants to the sticks.
</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Harvesting :</span></b>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>
The first harvest starts from 50 to 60 days after transplant.
</li>
<li>
The stage at which the fruits have to harvested depends on the
purpose of the harvest.
</li>
<li>
In case of long distance transport, the fruits have to be
harvested at fully matured unripe stage(fruits must be fully green
yet completely mature).
</li>
<li>
In case the fruits are harvested for the local market, they have
to harvested at hard ripe stage (The fruits must have turned red
completely yet firm). The hard ripe fruits must me consumed within
3 days after harvest.
</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Pests and Diseases :</span></b>
</div>
<div>
<b>Tomato is attacked by at least a dozen pests, the tomato leaf
miner, thrips, white flies and aphids can be the most troublesome
pests :</b><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZNcLSNQgdrk/XhdI29-WqVI/AAAAAAAAByQ/nBK5gGBFuLkyxZLIBR7y5Co-nu74wSFQQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Tomato-Pest.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="281" data-original-width="849" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZNcLSNQgdrk/XhdI29-WqVI/AAAAAAAAByQ/nBK5gGBFuLkyxZLIBR7y5Co-nu74wSFQQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Tomato-Pest.JPG" /></a>
</div>
<br />
<b>Most common Diseases of Tomato and management :</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LZR_oFFHY9c/XhdJvjZqSYI/AAAAAAAAByc/lYRSKh_S5I08Wr6Xg-jr3kLol-XcKgIGACEwYBhgL/s1600/Tomato-Diseases.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="305" data-original-width="790" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LZR_oFFHY9c/XhdJvjZqSYI/AAAAAAAAByc/lYRSKh_S5I08Wr6Xg-jr3kLol-XcKgIGACEwYBhgL/s1600/Tomato-Diseases.JPG" /></a>
</div>
<br />
Tomato is also infected by a bunch of
<a href="https://www.agrowikipedia.in/2019/12/plant-virus.html">Viruses</a>
like Tobbaco mossaic virus, tomato curl virus, these can be controlled
by controlling the vectors and following
<a href="https://www.agrowikipedia.in/2019/12/plant-virus.html">good farm practices</a>.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Physiological disorders in Tomato:</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></b>
1. Blossom end rot: it is more serious, ground discoloration starts.
In blossom end of the fruit. Black spot develops to encompass ½ to 2/3
rd portion of the fruit. Later the tissues shrink and skin becomes
dark grey to black. It may lead to secondary infection by fungus and
unfit for consumption.<br />
Causes: use of Ammonium sulphate, imbalance of Mg & K; deficiency
of calcium<br />
Remedies: cultural practices that concern soil moisture and maintain
uniform moisture supply. Transplanting in early April instead of early
June. Foliar spray of 0.5% CaCl2. Apply Nitrogen in the form of
Urea.<br />
2. Fruit cracking: occurs for middle of the May. Reduced transpiration
has increased cell turgidity and contributed to tomato fruit cracking.
Reduced transpiration occurs even in summer when fruit are grown in
green house. Cracking also occurs in rainy season when rains fall in
long dry spell.<br />
Presence of water on the surface of fruit is more conducive in
cracking than high soil moisture.<br />
Boron deficiency in the soil also causes fruit cracking.They are two
types of cracking.<br />
i. radial cracking: occurs mostly at ripe stage.<br />
ii.Concentric cracking: it is common in mature green stage.<br />
Remedies: use of resistant cultivars like Sioux, Punjab chuhara.
Picking of the fruit before the full ripe stage. Soil application of
Borax @ 10 – 15 kg per ha. Regulation of soil moisture. Misting (spray
of cool water).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-79023472707542221662020-01-08T22:04:00.000+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.453+05:30Pearl Millet Cultivation (Pennisitum americanum)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Bajra is one of the major coarse grain crops and is considered as poorman’s food. It provides staple food for the poor in a short period in the relatively dry tracts of the country. It is the most drought tolerant crop among cereals and millets. Pearl millet is endowed with greater ability to withstand harsh climatic factors, and still yield substantially. Globally, it occupies around 27 mha.<br />
Bajra is cooked like Rice or Chapaties are prepared out of its flour , It is also used as feed for poultry and fodder for cattle. Most of the Scientists believe that the primary centre of origin of bajra is Africa from where it spread to India and other countries. Bajra is grown mostly in tropical climate. It is widely grown in Africa and Asia. The important Bajra growing countries are India, pakistan, China and South East Asia.<br />
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The crop has wide adaptability as it may grow under different day lengths, temperatures and moisture stress. It has a high degree of resistance for drought. Most of the varieties developed in India are photo-insensitive which permits in growing the crop during Kharif, rabi and summer seasons. The crop requires low annual rainfall ranging between 40 to 50 cm and dry weather. The crop needs wet weather, light showers and bright sunshine, at its grand growth stage. There should be no rain at flowerns as the pollens are washed off and fertilization is found to be poor, while at maturity it needs fairly dry weather associated with bright sunny days. The crop may tolerate drought but cannot withstand high rainfall of 900mm or above. The best temperature for the growth and development of bajra is between 30 degree to 35 degree.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Soil :</span></b><br />
Bajra can be grown on a wide variety of soils, but being sensitive to water logging, it does best on well drained sandy loams and clay loams. Bajra is sensitive to acidic soils. It can be grown successfully on black cotton soils, alluvial soils and red soils.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Land Preparation :</span></b><br />
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The crop needs very fine tilth because the seeds are very small. It is essential to do the summer ploughing by mould board plough and after the onset of monsoon the field should be harrowed twice (or) thrice or ploughed by country plough. Care should be taken to remove all the weeds and stubbles from the field and if possible the field should be levelled and drains should be provided in the field.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Seeds, Sowing and Seasons :</span></b><br />
Due to its wide adaptability, Bajra is grown in all the 3 seasons, the sowing time is as follows:<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Kharif :June -July</li>
<li>Rabi :Sept-Oct</li>
<li>Summer : First fortnight of January</li>
</ul>
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<b>Seed Rate</b> : 4.0-5.0 kg/ ha (If sown by drilling), 2.5-3.0 kg/ha (If sown by dibbling method) </div>
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Sowing is either done by Broadcasting, Drilling, Dibbling and Transplanting although drilling is the most popular method. Seeds must be sown at a depth of 2 to 3 cm.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Fertilizer Management :</span></b></div>
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FYM @ 5t/ha should be applied and mixed well in to the soil about 20 days before sowing. </div>
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Fertilizer schedule is as follows:</div>
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<div>
Rainfed crop : 50 to 60 -30 -20 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha</div>
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Irrigated : 100 to 120 - 40 -20 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha respectively.</div>
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Half dose of nitrogen, full doses of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at the time of sowing. The remaining N is applied in 2 splits. Once at the time of thinning (3 to 4 weeks after sowing) and the rest at ear formation stage.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Water Management :</span></b></div>
As Bajra is mainly grown as a rainfed crop, there is hardly any need for irrigation. Irrigate the crop if there are no rains. Generally, two irrigations during the growing period of the crop are enough. If moisture is limiting, irrigation must be given at the time of earhead emergence because it is the most critical stage for moisture stress. Bajra does not tolerate water logging. So do not allow rain water to stand in the field for more than few hours. Proper arrangement for draining the excess water must be made. Total water requirement is 450-550 mm and W.U.E. is 8.0 kg/ha.mm of water.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Weed Control :</span></b> </div>
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The damage due to weeds is severe during 3-5 weeks after sowing. Intercultivation by hand hoe or wheel hoe should be done at 3-5 weeks after sowing. However, sometimes due to unavailability of labour or soil being too wet to permit manual wedding, timely weeding becomes difficult. Under such conditions the only effective way to control weeds is the use of herbicides. Pre-emergence application of Atrazine or Propazine @0.5 kg per/ha in 600 litres of water controls most of the monocot and dicot weeds.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Harvesting :</span></b></div>
Harvest the crop when grains become hard and contain about 20% moisture. Harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant or removing the earheads first and cutting down the plants later on. The ear heads after harvesting, should be dried in the sun. The grains are separated either by beating the ear heads by sticks or by trampling by bullocks. The threshed grain should be cleaned and dried in sun to bring the moisture content down to 12% for safe storage. Expected Yield of Bajra is 12 - 15 quintals in case of rainfed crop and 20 to 25 quintals in case of irrigated crop.<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-49628275524418195742020-01-06T12:38:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.461+05:30Water Management<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Agriculture water management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and optimum use of water resources for its efficient use and better out put. i.e., allocation of all the resources for maximum benefit and to achieve the objectives, without eroding the environment. Water is essential not only to meet agricultural needs but also for industrial purposes, power generation, live stock maintenance, rural and domestic needs etc. But the resources available is limited and cannot be created as we require. Hence water management it very important.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">The major objectives of Water management are :</span></b><br />
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<li>To the development of nation through proper management of water resources for the purpose of crop production and other activities such as industrialization, power generation etc., which in turn provides employment opportunities and good living condition of the people.</li>
<li>To store and regulate the water resources for further use or non-season use.</li>
<li>To allocate the water with proper proportion based on area and crop under cultivation.</li>
<li>To convey the water without much loss through percolation and seepage.</li>
<li>To meet the future requirement for other purposes like domestic use of individual and to protect against famine.</li>
<li>To protect the environment from over use or misuse of water.</li>
<li>To ensure judicial distribution of water and thus making sure of social balance.</li>
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In Agriculture water management plays a major role since water is the prime requirement for plant growth, it is important to make sure that the plant gets adequate water throughout its life cycle to ensure optimum plant growth for optimum yield. The role of water in plant growth is as follows :<br />
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Water constitutes major portion of the cells, 90 percent of the cells is made of water.</li>
<li>Water is the base material for all the metabolic activities that take place within the plant cells.</li>
<li>Water is the primary agent that helps in germination of the seeds and development.</li>
<li>Water is the base material for all the metabolic activities that take place within the plant cell.</li>
<li>It plays a primary role in biological processes of the plants like photosynthesis, transpiration etc..</li>
<li>It acts as a solvent for the plant nutrient and thereby playing a major role in the nutrient uptake by the plants. It also facilitates the translocation of nutrients within the plants by acting as a carrier.</li>
<li>It helps in maintaining the turgidity of the cell and therefore affecting the overall shape of the plant and stand of the plants.</li>
<li>It helps in maintaining the temperature within the plants through transpiration.</li>
</ul>
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Indirect Role water affecting plant growth:</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>It helps maintaining the soil temperature.</li>
<li>It helps maintaining the salt balance within the soil.</li>
<li>It reduces salinity and alkalinity of the soil.</li>
<li>It influences atmospheric weather.</li>
<li>It helps the beneficial microbes present in the soil.</li>
<li>It supports human and animals lives.</li>
<li>It helps in increasing the efficiency of the cultural operations like land preparation (ploughing, land preparation etc..) fertilizer application, weeding etc..</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Irrigation : </span></b></div>
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The water is delivered to plants naturally through rainfall but in case areas where there is no sufficient rainfall to support the plant growth, water is supplied to the plants artificially, this process of supplying water to the plants artificially to ensure proper growth and development of the plants is called "<span style="color: #93c47d;">Irrigation". </span></div>
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Irrigation is an important step in crop production in case of an irrigated crop, it helps using the water judiciously in accordance with the plant requirement and thereby influencing the overall crop yield which leads to economic benefit of man.</div>
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Importance of Irrigation:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>It helps in managing the available water resources judiciously in order to maintain optimum plant growth as well as benefit the environment.</li>
<li>It helps in controlled supply of water to the crops which in turn helps in management of the available water resources and minimizing the wastage of water.</li>
<li>Since the amount of water supplied can be controlled, it makes it easier to provide the right amount of water to the crops and thereby preventing any yield loss due to excess or poor irrigation.</li>
<li>It helps in managing the water in regions where availability of water is limited.</li>
<li>Sometimes the fertilizer can also be delivered through the irrigation water.</li>
<li>It helps in growing the crops even during off season, also provides protection to the plants during dry spells and famine.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Irrigation Management :</span></b></div>
</div>
<div>
Irrigation management refers to systematic planning, monitoring, regulating and management of irrigation activities based on the available water resources, crop irrigation requirement, irrigation structures, agro-climate, topography etc for efficient use of water and better out put. i.e., allocation of all the resources for maximum benefit and to achieve the objectives, without eroding the environment.</div>
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A systematic planning irrigation activities necessary in agriculture because water is a limited resource and it is cannot be created on an on demand basis, Water is needed for almost all activities in the worlds starting for domestic use till the industrial use. The major portion of the available portable water (>90 percent) on earth is used for agriculture, hence using water without proper planning and exploiting the water resources will result in rapid degradation of the water resources and affecting the overall well being of the planet, also indiscriminate use of nutrients and chemicals will also result in contamination of the water resources affecting the environmental balance. A systematic and scientific approach towards irrigation will help managing the water available efficiently whilst ensuring the better crop yields and minimizing the effects on the environment.</div>
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In addition to this Irrigation management will also help in scheduling the irrigation activities, determining the type of irrigation, this is important because even though water is the prime requirement for plant growth, it is also necessary to make sure that the plants get adequate amount of water as per its requirement for the growth of plants is both affected by excess and poor water irrigation.</div>
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Effect of poor irrigation on plants :</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Poor irrigation to the plants results in loss of cell turgidity which affects the overall shape of the plants and the crop stand.</li>
<li>It also results in poor metabolic activities and there by affecting the total crop yield.</li>
<li>Water is a the primary constituent of many biological processes in plants, lack of water will have direct affect on all these activities hence decreasing the crop yields substantially.</li>
<li>Since water acts as the carrier material for the transport of nutrients and other metabolites, poor irrigation will affect the transport of these compounds.</li>
<li>It also results in poor soil conditions.</li>
<li>Prolong dry-spell will ultimately result in death of the plants since the plants cannot survive without water.</li>
</ul>
Effect of Excess Irrigation on Plants :</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Excess irrigation leads to wastage of water and nutrient by means of leaching and percolation.</li>
<li>It affects the aeration of the active root zone and thereby affecting the nutrient uptake by the plants.</li>
<li>It creates unfavorable conditions for the beneficial microbes present in the soil.</li>
<li>It results in buildup of humidity which favors outbreak of pests and diseases.</li>
<li>It results in accumulation of salts in the soil leading to soil salinity and alkalinity.</li>
<li>It creates physiological stress in case of moisture sensitive plants and therefore affecting the quality and quantity of the yield. </li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Methods Of Irrigation </span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></b>There are 3 types of Irrigation :<br />
1. Surface Irrigation<br />
2. Subsurface Irrigation<br />
3. Pressurized Irrigation<br />
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<span style="color: #e06666;"><b>Surface Irrigation - </b><b>Surface irrigation is where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity. It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world, It is commonly referred to as Flood irrigation wherein water is allowed to flow freely over the farm land.</b></span><br />
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Types of Surface Irrigation :<br />
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<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Border Irrigation - In this method, the land is divided into long parallel lines separated by low ridges, slope is maintained along the direction of irrigation, irrigation is provided to each line individually by turning the water at the upper end. This method is most suited for flat lands with slope not more than 2 percent with moderate infiltration capacity.</li>
<li> Check Basin Irrigation - In this method, the land is divided into small areas called basin, the plants is generally at the center of each area, Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the the water is held, water is applied to a desired depth and it is retained until it infiltrates into the soil. The size of the basin varies from 10 square meter to 25 square meter depending upon soil type , topography, stream size and crop. This is one of the most commonly practiced system of irrigation. It is most suited for lands with lower slopes with low to moderate infiltration capacity.</li>
<li>Furrow Irrigation - In this method, furrow are made along the crop rows/raised beds called ridges, the water is allowed to flow in the furrows where the water is absorbed and spread laterally. The dimensions of the furrows depend on the Crop to be grown, type of soil and equipment used. This method is suitable for growing crops that need wide spacing, is suitable for all types of soil except sandy soils. there are many types of furrow irrigation :</li>
</ol>
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Based on type of Alignment :<br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Straight Furrows</li>
<li>Contour Furrows</li>
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Based on the Size :</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Deep Furrows</li>
<li>Corrugations</li>
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Based on Irrigation :</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>All Furrow Irrigation</li>
<li>Alternate Furrow Irrigation</li>
<li>Skip Furrow Irrigation</li>
<li>Surge Irrigation</li>
</ul>
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<span style="color: #e06666;"><b>Subsurface Irrigation - Subsurface irrigation is a method where water is applied beneath the ground by creating and maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the </b></span><b style="color: #e06666;">ground surface. water is supplied through field underground field trenches laid 15 to 30 m apart, water moves upwards towards the land by "Capillary action". </b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #e06666;">Pressurized Irrigation - Pressurized irrigation is where water is supplied to the plants under high pressure through a system of pipes. This method of Irrigation is more efficient, suitable to all most all types of soil when compared to the other types of irrigation.</span></b><br />
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There are mainly 2 types of pressurized irrigation :<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Sprinkler Irrigation </li>
<li>Drip Irrigation</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Few Terminologies in Water management</span></b> </div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Field Capacity - It is defined as the amount of water held by the plants after the excess water is drained out and the downward movement of water is slowed down.</li>
<li>Permanent Wilting Point - It is the stage where the plants can no longer is the soil moisture content at which plants can no longer obtain enough moisture to meet transpiration requirements and remain wilted unless water is added to the soil.</li>
<li>Available Water - Soil Moisture that is present in between Field Capacity and Permanent Wilting Point that is readily available for the plant uptake.</li>
<li>Percolation - Percolation is the downward movement of water through saturated or nearly saturated soil in response to the force of gravity. Percolation occurs when water is under pressure or when the tension is smaller than about ½ atmosphere.</li>
<li>Water Requirement - Water requirement may be defined as the quantity of water required by a crop or diversified pattern of crop in a given period of time for its normal growth under field conditions at a place.</li>
<li>Evapotranspiration - The combined loss of water through evaporation and transpiration from the cropped field is called evapotranspiration.</li>
<li>Irrigation Requirement - The field irrigation requirement of crops refers to water requirement of crops exclusive of effective rainfall and contribution from soil profile.</li>
<li>Irrigation Frequency - Irrigation frequency is the interval between two consecutive irrigations during crop periods.</li>
<li>Critical Stage of Irrigation - The stage at which the water stress causes severe yield reduction is also known as critical stage of water requirement. It is also called "Moisture Sensitive period".</li>
<li>Water Budgeting - Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as water budgeting.</li>
<li>Water Use efficiency - It is the ration of water input to the total yield obtained, it is expressed in kg/ha.</li>
</ul>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-12188814812069723522020-01-03T13:59:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.468+05:30Capsicum Cultivation ( Capsicum annum)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Capsicum is commonly called Bell pepper or Sweet pepper is a genus of flowering plants belongs to the family "Solanaceae", it is native to tropical America and is believed to have originated in Mexico, cultivation of capsicum spread worldwide after Columbian exchange. The genus consists around 30 species of flowering plants among which several species are extensively cultivated for their edible fruits and it has also become a key ingredient in many cuisines. Capsicum species have also been used as medicines and lachrymatory agents. Due to its radiant appearance and pungency of the fruits, Capsicum is desired and consumed in almost all countries of the world, China is the largest producer of Capsicum.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Cultivation</span></b><br />
Capsicum is a temperate crop meaning it needs cooler weather for optimum growth, therefore it is most suitable time for sowing is Sept -Oct. Being a high feeder crop, capsicum responds very well to fertilizers, it is most sensitive to water logging and frost. It is preferable to grow capsicum in protected environment(poly house) rather than open cultivation because protected cultivation results in better quality of fruits and higher yields, apart from that it also helps in controlling the pests and diseases. The protected structures can either be low cost net house or High cost poly houses with semi or complete automation.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Site selection</span></b><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Site selection for setting up poly house for capsicum cultivation is an important step, the area must have well drained soil, the temperature must be between 21 to 28 degrees.</li>
<li>The region must receive very high rain fall and humidity as there favor the spread of many diseases.</li>
<li>The region must not have high wind velocity since they can cause damage to the poly house.</li>
<li>The Soil pH must be of range 6 to 7 for good growth of the plants. </li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Nursery Management</span></b><br />
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Capsicums are grown either by directly sowing the seeds or transplanting already established seedlings grown in nursery onto the main field. Although direct sowing method is not recommended.</li>
<li>Good quality seedlings result in better yields, higher immunity and overall performance of the plants hence nursery management is an important step in Capsicum cultivation.</li>
<li>The seeds used for raising the seedlings must be of suitable variety for the agro-climate and also must be free from physical impurities, Seeds can be treated with fungicides and pesticides and Bio-Fertilizers for better results.</li>
<li>Seedlings are raised either on raised nursery beds with 2 % slope or in protrays of 50 cavities. In case of nursery beds seeds are sowed in lines with a spacing of 5 cm in between the lines, It is recommended to raise the seedlings under protected structure with a 50 percent insect proof nylon net to protect the seedlings from pests.</li>
<li>Care has to be taken to prevent the entry of rodents and the area of the nursery has to be kept clean, free from debris and water stagnation.</li>
<li>Prior to sowing seedlings must be treated with Carbendizium at the rate of 2g/kg in case of non-certified seeds.</li>
<li>In case of Protrays, each cell of the tray is filled with sterilzed cocopeat, sometimes a mixture of protrays and farmyard manure is used. One seed is sown in each cell at a depth of 2 cm.</li>
<li>The beds have to be watered using rose can every day.</li>
<li>16 days after sowing drench the seedling with 19 ALL and Zinc phosphate solution at the rate of 5g/lt and 4g/lt respectively.</li>
<li>Spray 6 percent solution of neem oil on the plants 20 DAS.</li>
<li>In both cases, seedlings will be ready to transplant is 30 to 35 days</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Soil and climate</span></b><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Red soils, sandy loamy soils are most suitable for capsicum cultivation, soils with good drainage give the best results.</li>
<li>Soils with pH between 5.5 to 6.8 is optimum.</li>
<li>Soils should be loose since Capsicum has bidirectional root system.</li>
<li>Highly acidic soils must me reclaimed by applying lime.</li>
<li>Capsicum is a cold season crop but it can be grown throughout the year under protected structures and controlled conditions.</li>
<li>The optimum temperature for Capsicum growth is 22 to 28 degrees during the day and 16 to 18 degrees during the night.</li>
<li>The Relative humidity should be between 60-70%.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Land Preparation</span></b></div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The Land should be thoroughly ploughed in order to bring the soil to a fine tilth.</li>
<li>25 tonnes of well decomposed FYM must be applied per hectare.</li>
<li>Raised beds should 90 cm high and 18 cm wide, there must be a walking space of 2.5 ft between the beds.</li>
<li>The beds are then fumigated by drenching 4 percent formaldehyde and covering the beds with polythene sheet and left undisturbed for 4 days, after 4 days, the sheets are removed and the soil is stirred repeatedly up till the fumes of formalin is evaporated completely.</li>
<li>Care should be taken that the workers are wearing masks while fumigating.</li>
<li>Bio agents like Trichoderma and Pseudomonas can be used to enrich the soil fertility and protection of the plants.</li>
<li>Drip lines are laid using 16mm lateral drip pipes in center of the beds. The drip nozzels with discharge capacity of 2 to 4 lt/hr are fitted at an interval of 45cm.</li>
<li>The raised beds are then covered with black polythene sheets of thickness 50 to 100 micron, this kind of mulching helps in trapping moisture, preventing weed growth also checking the prevalence of soil-borne pests and pathogens.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Transplanting</span></b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The seedlings of around 1.5 ft height with at least 3 leaves must be selected for transplanting.The selected seedlings must be healthy and free from pests and diseases.</li>
<li>The seedlings must be irrigated and the main field should also be irrigated in order to prevent transplantation shock.</li>
<li>The seedlings can be either transplanted manually or with the help of a transplanter.</li>
<li>Recommended spacing for Capsicum is 2 ft between the plants and 2.5 ft between the rows.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Intercultural Operations</span></b></div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Pruning - pruning should be done after 30 to 35 days after transplant. There are two systems of pruning, "Two leader and four leader system". These pruning system helps in efficient management of energy and higher yields and better quality fruits.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Two leader System - After transplant the main stem splits into 2 main shoots at 6th or 7th node, after every 7 to 10 days each of these individuals shoot will further split in to two shoots, each split will result in one strong shoot and one weak shoot, for two leader system after the second split the weak shoots are removed and the strong shoots are retained, this is repeated after every split so as to maintain only two continuous shoots throughout the crop period. Only one fruit per shoot is maintained.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Four leader System - This system is similar to the Two leader system except the pruning starts after the third split so as to maintain four continuous shoots throughout the cropping period.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Apart from maintaining the leaders, the plants also needs to be pruned for older and diseased leaves periodically.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Training - Capsicum plants can grow up to ten feet, and the plants have to be supported for the maximum plant performance. Two nylon twines suspended alongside the plant and the twines are tied to the main stem. the shoots are then clipped to the twines at interval of 1.5 feet either by using plastic clamps or by twisting the shoots around the twines.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Fertilizer management</span></b><br />
<br />
Capsicum is a higher feeder crop, responds very well to fertilizers especially under protected cultivation.<br />
<br />
The recommended dose of fertilizer for Capsicum is 200 : 120 : 200 kg/acre of NPK respectively, 40 kg of N and 40 kg of K is applied with full dose of P as basal dose, the rest of N and K are applied in split doses every 30 to 35 days interval through out the crop period.<br />
<br />
<b>Fertigation Schedule for Capsicum : </b><br />
A basal Dose of NPK of 30:30:40 kg/acre is applied, also Calcium Nitrate and Super phosphate at the rate of 60 kg/acre and 100 kg/acre is applied respectively.<br />
<br />
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<br />
Use of Phytohormones is also found to increase the yield in Capsicum, the most commonly used hormones in capsicum are Tricontonol and Napthol acetic acid.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Weed Management</span></b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Weeding is done either manually using a hand Hoe or using an intercultivator. Although weeding by means of inter-cultivator can reduce the time and cost of weeding. Weeds is also controlled by using herbicides.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="color: #6aa84f;"><b>Pest Management</b> </span></div>
<div>
Capsicum is attacked by at least a dozen pests, some of them can be very difficult to manage and may cause yield loss up to 80 percent under severe conditions.</div>
<div>
Some of the most Common Pests of Capsicum and their management :</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
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<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Disease Management</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div>
Capsicum is also susceptible to many viruses, the viral infection can be prevented by controlling the vectors, using infection free planting materials and removing any host plants in the surrounding vicinity of the farm. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Harvesting</span> </b></div>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Capsicum fruits comes to harvest around 65 to 70 days after transplant.</li>
<li>The Fruits that have reached full size are harvested in case of green and the fruits that have achieved 85 percent colour are harvested in case of coloured capsicum.</li>
<li>The fruits are harvested using scissors or sicatures, the fruits have to harvested close to the shoot by at least leaving 1 inch of twig intact.</li>
<li>Yield of Capsicum is between 18 to 25 tonnes in case of local varieties while High yielding hybrid varieties under can yield up to 40 tonnes per acre in a period of 6 to 7 months after transplant.</li>
<li>The harvested fruits are graded and sorted, If the fruits have to be stored, the temperature must be 7-8 degrees.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-6570901102373631382019-12-24T17:23:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.475+05:30Plant Virus<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Plant Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, they cannot replicate without a host. In 1876, Adolf Mayer was the first to show that what he called "Tobacco Mosaic Disease" was infectious, he thought that it was caused by either a toxin or a very small bacterium. Later, in 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitry Ivanovsky used a Chamberland filter to study the tobacco mosaic virus. His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria, but did not pursue the idea. In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck , a microbiology teacher at the Agricultural School in Wageningen repeated experiments by Adolf Mayer and became convinced that filtrate contained a new form of infectious agent and introduced the term Virus.<br />
<br />
Plant viruses comprise of a genetic material mostly ss RNA but some may also contain ds RNA, ssDNA and dsRNA with a protein coat for protection and they do not have any mechanisms of transport hence they solely depend on vectors and other means of transport to move from one plant to another.<br />
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Means of Transport of Plant Virus</span></b></h3>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Transport through Cell Sap - Viruses can be spread by direct transfer of sap by contact of a wounded plant with a healthy one. Such contact may occur during agricultural practices, as by damage caused by tools or hands, or naturally, as by an animal feeding on the plant. Generally TMV, potato viruses and cucumber mosaic viruses are transmitted via sap.</li>
<li>Insects - This is the most common method of transmission of the plant virus, through insects. When insects like white flies, aphids feed on the infected parts of the plants and move to the next host plant, the virus id transmitted.</li>
<li>Nematodes - Soil-borne nematodes also have been shown to transmit viruses. They acquire and transmit them by feeding on infected roots.</li>
<li>Seed and pollen - Plant virus transmission from generation to generation occurs in about 20% of plant viruses. When viruses are transmitted by seeds, the seed is infected in the generative cells and the virus is maintained in the germ cells.</li>
<li>Transmission through Humans - Virus is also transmitted by humans when the come in contact with an infected plant and later with a healthy plant.</li>
<li>Transmission through Farm equipment - When farm equipment like secatures, spades etc that are used on infected plants, the virus adheres to the equipment and is transmitted to the healthy plants during operations.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">List of the most common Plant viruses and their Mode of spread</span></b> : </div>
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<br /></div>
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Sl.no<o:p></o:p></div>
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Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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Host Plants<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mode of Spread<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
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1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 30pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Citrus Tristeza Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 30pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Citrus Species<o:p></o:p></div>
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Citrus pyslla, Aphids, infected budwood<o:p></o:p></div>
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2<o:p></o:p></div>
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Papaya Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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Papaya plant and cucurbits<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
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3<o:p></o:p></div>
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Tobacco Leaf curl Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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Tobacco, Tomato(Various tropical plants)<o:p></o:p></div>
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White flies<o:p></o:p></div>
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4<o:p></o:p></div>
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Bunchy Top Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Banana, Sugarcane, Papaya<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
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5<o:p></o:p></div>
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Banana mosaic/cucumber mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Banana, cantaloupe melon, capsicum, chilli, pumpkin, snake gourd, tomato and watermelon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Seeds, Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
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6<o:p></o:p></div>
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Banana Bract mosaic virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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Cardamom, Banana<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 45pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
7<o:p></o:p></div>
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Chilli mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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banana, cantaloupe melon, capsicum, chilli, pumpkin, snake gourd, tomato and watermelon<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Aphids, leafhoppers, whiteflies, cucumber beetles<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
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8<o:p></o:p></div>
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Potato Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
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Banana, cantaloupe melon, capsicum, chilli, pumpkin, snake gourd, tomato and watermelon<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aphids, Infected plant contact<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 45pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
9<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Tobacco Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Banana, cantaloupe melon, capsicum, chilli, pumpkin, snake gourd, tomato and watermelon<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
10<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Tomato spotted wilt virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Tomato, Eggplant, Pepper<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Thrips<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
11<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Bhendi Yellow vein Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Okra<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
White flies<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 30pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 30pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
12<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 30pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Potato Leaf Roll Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 30pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Solanaceae and Amaranthaceae members (Potato)<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 30pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Peach aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 45pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
13<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Tomato Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Banana, cantaloupe melon, capsicum, chilli, pumpkin, snake gourd, tomato and watermelon, Chenopodial veggies<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 45pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
14<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Bean Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Banana, cantaloupe melon, capsicum, chilli, pumpkin, snake gourd, tomato and watermelon, Chenopodial veggies, Legums<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 45pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
15<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Rice Tungro Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Rice And Poaceae members<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Leafhoppers<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 31.5pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 31.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
16<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 31.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Sugarcane Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 31.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and other poaceous plants<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 31.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Aphids<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
17<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Tobacco Streak Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Tobacco, Coepea, luster beans<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Thrips<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 60pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 60pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
18<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 60pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Sunflower Necrosis Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 60pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Cotton, sun Hemp, Mungbean, Groundnut Cucumber, Gherkin Krishna, Okra, safflower, Chilli, Urdbean, Niger, Onion, Guar, Jasmine, Horse gram, Pigeon pea<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 60pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Thrips<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
19<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Sterility Mosaic Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Pigeonpea<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
eriophyid mite<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;"><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-image: initial; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 32.8pt;" width="44"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
20<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 166.25pt;" width="222"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Leaf crinkle Virus<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.85pt;" width="221"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Leguminous plants<o:p></o:p></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; height: 15pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 165.1pt;" width="220"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
Aphids, White flies, seed borne.<o:p></o:p></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">General Management practices for Plant Virus :</span></b></div>
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<ul>
<li>Always conduct a pre-site survey before growing a crop to Identify the most likely virus that might infect the field and select suitable resistant varieties.</li>
<li>Cultural Practices - Scouting the field for infected plants, uprooting and destroying the infected plants. Using Sanitized equipment for the farm activities. Removing of alternate hosts in and around the farm.</li>
<li>Controlling the insect vectors by using suitable chemicals.</li>
<li>Using infection free seeds and planting materials while propagating.</li>
<li></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-65915659610109703212019-12-23T14:46:00.002+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.483+05:30Finger millet ( Elusine corcana)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Finger millet is commonly called Ragi and is predominately cultivated in India. Other countries include Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan etc. Believed to have originated in Africa, finger millet was likely to be developed from the wild grass Elusine indica. Contributing to 40 percent of the total millet production of India, Ragi is on of the most important millet crops especially to South India. It is the staple crop of atleast 30 percent of Indian population. Due its nutritional content and keeping quality Ragi is one of the most desired millet crop in India. Ragi is grown both for its grains and forage purpose. Ragi is mostly consumed in the form of Ragi ball, Roti, Amli etc... The processed products of Ragi like malts, biscuits has greater demand too.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Few Points about Ragi :</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Finger millet is a C-4 and short day plant.</li>
<li>Finger millet is grown as annual crop, due to its wide adaptive nature, finger millet can be grown through out the year although the most output can be obtained when cultivated under hotter climate. Depending on the variety, the crop duration varies between 90 to 150 days.</li>
<li>Finger millet has high resistance to drought, hence it can successfully grow in tropical regions even with very low rainfall.</li>
<li>Finger millet can grow from 1.5 ft to 4 ft in height, leaves are narrow dark green.</li>
<li>The Inflorescence of Ragi consists of 4 to 20 spikes called "Fingers" which consists of densely packed spikelets where the seeds are produced. The total number of fingers are collectively called as Ears.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Cultivation</span></b><br />
Finger millet is a very hardy crop, it has high tolerance to drought, hence it is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions even with very low rainfall, It is sensitive to excessive moisture, hence in regions with high rainfall, it is cultivated in well drained soils.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Soil</span></b><br />
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-iK2WHrANxbY/XgB9VwXUS9I/AAAAAAAABs4/yj7GZ8pu6EwaaCxzxX1u6kUX3z3PJDdRgCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/542.2934265801.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="1024" height="240" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-iK2WHrANxbY/XgB9VwXUS9I/AAAAAAAABs4/yj7GZ8pu6EwaaCxzxX1u6kUX3z3PJDdRgCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/542.2934265801.jpg" width="320" /></a>Finger millet can be grown on wide range of soils, it performs well even in soils with low fertility, the crops give best results under any well drained soils, it has wide range of pH between 5.5 to 8. The crops grows well even in saline soils too.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Climatic Requirements </span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The optimum temperature for growth is 18 degree to 28 although the plant can survive up to 40 degree.</li>
<li>The crop has high resistance to drought, can be grown even in regions with rainfall be low 350mm.</li>
<li>The crop is susceptible to lodging, therefore in regions with high wind velocity, short plant varieties must be grown.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Growing Seasons </span></b>- Due its wide adaptability Ragi is grown through out the year where ever the conditions are optimum although the most cultivated season in India is the kharif crop where sowing is taken up between June-July. If it is grown as a Rabi, sowing is done during Nov-Dec.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Land Preparation : </span></b><br />
The field as to be ploughed using mould board plough after the harvest of the previous crop, hard pans must be broken down, prior to sowing the field must be ploughed to bring the field to a fine tilth and the land must be leveled.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Seeds and Sowing </span></b><br />
Seeds of suitable variety should be selected for cultivation, the seeds must be free from any physical impurities.<br />
Sowing is either done manually or by broadcasting, dibbiling or using seed drill. In case of transplanted crop, seedlings raised in designated nursery area are transplanted to the main growing field.<br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Broadcasting - The seeds are thrown around the field manually, followed by gentle stirring the soil to cover the seeds with soil, no specific spacing is followed. Seed rate - 5 to 6 kg/acre.</li>
<li>Drilling/Dibbling - The seed is sown using seed drills or sowed with hands, this method is followed where there is good irrigation facilities.</li>
<li>Transplanting - This method is followed where there is assured supply of water. Seedling are raised in designated nursery areas and transplanted after 20 days onto the main field. the most common spacing followed is 10*15cm.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #45818e;">Test Weight - 3g/1000 seeds</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Fertilizer Management</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Seed treatment with Bio-fertilizers Azospirullum, phspobacteria will help increase the yield.</li>
<li>10 tonnes of well decomposed FYM is applied to field before sowing.</li>
<li>The recommended dose of fertilizer for Ragi is 60:30:30 kg per acre. </li>
<li>Half dose of N is applied as basal dose along with full dose of P and K, the rest of the N is applied 30 DAS.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Irrigation management </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Crop grown during the Kharif season do not need irrigation. </li>
<li>The Critical irrigation stage of Ragi is the flowering, tilering and milking stage, care has to be taken that there is adequate moisture during these three stages.</li>
<li>In case of Irrigated crop, irrigation must be given once every 7 to 10 days based on the moisture content of the soil.</li>
<li>In case of poorly drained soil irrigation must be given once every 25 to 30 days in order to ensure there is no water logging as Ragi is most affected by water logging.</li>
</ul>
</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Weed Management </span></b></div>
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Weeding is an important step in finger millet cultivation, in case of broadcasted crop hand weeding should be done at 20 DAS, weeds maybe necessary depending on the severity, in case of drill sown crop. inter-cultivator can be used for weeding. Weeds can also be controlled with the help of herbicides.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Harvesting </span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Depending on the type of variety, the crop comes to harvest between 4 to 5 months.</li>
<li>All Ear heads don't mature at the same time hence the harvesting is done 2 to 3 times per crop.</li>
<li>The harvested Ears are place on the ground and covered with gunny bags in order to induce coloration.</li>
<li>The dried Ears are later threshed to recover the grains, threshing is done using Roller stones, threshers.</li>
<li>The rest of the biomass other than the Ears are stacked up for later use for forage purpose for cattle.</li>
</ul>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-28108475610744565692019-12-17T09:29:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.490+05:30Spinach (Spinacia oleracia)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Origin and History :<br />
Spinach is a leafy green flowering plant native to central and western Asia.The exact region of origin is still not known although it is believed to have originated in ancient Persia, The earliest available record of the spinach plant was recorded in Chinese, stating it was introduced into China via Nepal (probably in 647 AD). Spinach first appeared in England and France in the 14th century, probably via Spain, and it gained quick popularity because it appeared in early spring, when other vegetables were scarce and when Lenten dietary restrictions discouraged consumption of other foods. Spinach is mentioned in the first known English cookbook, the Forme of Cury (1390), where it is referred to as 'spinnedge' and/or 'spynoches'. Smooth-seeded spinach was described in 1552.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Few Points about Spinach</span></b><br />
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<li>Spinach is a C-3 and long day plant.</li>
<li>It is an annual plant although in some cases it is also cultivated as a Biannual.</li>
<li>The plants grow up to 30 cm in height, the leaves are alternate, simple, ovate to triangular, and very variable in size: 2–30 cm (1–12 in) long and 1–15 cm (0.4–5.9 in) broad, with larger leaves at the base of the plant and small leaves higher on the flowering stem.</li>
<li> The flowers are inconspicuous, yellow-green, 3–4 mm (0.1–0.2 in) in diameter, and mature into a small, hard, dry, lumpy fruit cluster 5–10 mm (0.2–0.4 in)across containing several seeds.</li>
<li>Inflorescence in male plants is elongated spike whereas in female plants is an auxillary cluster.</li>
<li>Spinach leaves contain high Oxalate content which can be reduced by cooking.</li>
<li>China is the largest producers of Spinach.</li>
</ul>
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<span style="color: #93c47d;"><b>Cultivtion :</b></span></div>
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Spinach is a cold season crop but it is usually grown throughout the year although early spring sowing of Spinach give the best results. Spinach is widely cultivated because of its rich nutritional value, the short life cycle and convenient growth characteristics, spinach can be easily cultivated anywhere like balconies, terrace, backyard, hydroponics. Spinach widely consumed in raw form in salads and also in many dishes, it is also used as micro green.<br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Land preparation - Plough the soil thoroughly at least two times to bring the soil to a fine tilth, apply 10 tonnes of well decomposed farmyard manure.</li>
<li>Select good quality seeds, treat the seeds with Captan at the rate of 2g/kg.</li>
<li>Sowing is either done by broadcasting or dibbling, in case of dibbling sow the seeds not more than 3 cm deep maintain a spicing of 10 cm between plants and 36 cm between the rows. Sow at least 3 seeds in each hill.</li>
<li>Recommended dosage of fertilizer is 75:30:45, apply full dose of N and P and half dose of K as basal dose, Apply the rest of K at 20 DAS. Also apply 30 kg of MgSO4 at 15 DAS.</li>
<li>Spinach is a cold loving plant gives best results under temperature ranging between 18 to 22 degrees, however if the temperature goes beyond 30 degrees the plants tend to bolt and produce seeds.</li>
<li>The plants become ready for harvest from 40 DAS, if the plants are grown for mircogreens, then the plants can be harvested at 25 DAS.</li>
<li>Harvesting is done manually, the arial part of the plant is cut off and sold as a bunch or they are also sold in frozen form.</li>
<li>After the first harvest the cuttings can be retained for the next batch.</li>
<li>Major insect pests of spinach are Aphids, grass hoppers, leaf miners and bunch of caterpillars, they can be controlled by use of pesticides.</li>
</ul>
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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #93c47d;">Soil less Cultivation of Spinach</span></h2>
Spinach can be cultivated under soil less conditions under a system call Hydroponics, cultivation under hydroponics has many advantages over soil cultivation like increased yield and quality, reduction is the growth period of the plants, decreased incidence of pest and diseases and the crop can be cultivated through out the year. All these factors make Spinach cultivation under Hydroponics more profitable when compared to Soil farming.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #93c47d;">Cultivation of Hydroponic Spinach</span></h3>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The Hydroponic system consisting of NFT channels, fertigation system and protected structure is setup in the desired area. </li>
<li>Select suitable variety of the seeds according to the agro-climate of the growing area.</li>
<li>Germinating media like perlite, cocopeat or skyfoam is used to germinate the seeds.</li>
<li>The seedlings will be ready to transplant after 8 to 10 days after sowing.</li>
<li>The seedling are transplanted to the NFT channels with the help of netpots.</li>
<li>The necessary nutrition is provided to the plants through the nutrient solution which is predetermined.</li>
<li>The plants will be ready to harvest in 30 to 35 days.</li>
<li>The harvested plants can be sold as a bunch, frozen form or as live plants.</li>
</ul>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-85901027238714041112019-08-12T17:51:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.496+05:30Banana<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #e06666;">Botanical Name : Musa Sp</span></b><br />
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<b><span style="color: #e06666;">Family : Musaceae </span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Origin and History :</span></b><br />
Banana is one of the oldest fruits crops known to man, Banana evolved in the humid tropical regions of S.E.Asia with India as one of its centres of origin. Modern edible varieties have evolved from the two species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana and their natural hybrids, originally found in the rain forests of S.E.Asia. During the seventh century AD its cultivation spread to Egypt and Africa. At present banana is being cultivated throughout the warm tropical regions of the world between 300 N and 300 S of the equator.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Few Points about Banana :</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Banana is a C3 and long day plant.</li>
<li>Even though banana is an edible fruit, botanically it is classified as a "Berry".</li>
<li>Banana plant is herb which can grow up to 20 feet in high, the herb arises from an underground stem called Rhizome.</li>
<li>The major length of the plant is composed of the basal portions of leaf sheaths and is crowned with a rosette of 10 to 20 oblong to elliptic leaves that sometimes attain a length of 10–11.5 feet and a breadth of 65 cm.</li>
<li>The portion of the plant right above the soil up till the crown region is called false trunk.</li>
<li>The inflorescence of Banana is called "Spike" The inflorescence carrying numerous yellowish flowers protected by large purple-red bracts, emerges at the top of the false trunk and bends downward to become bunches of 50 to 150 individual fruits or fingers.</li>
<li>The individual fruits, or bananas, are grouped in clusters, or hands, of 10 to 20.</li>
<li>The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. </li>
<li>Only one Bunch of fruit is produced from a trunk its growing period. after completion of one crop cycle new small plants called "Suckers" arise out from the Rhizome. If the farmer is interested in continuing the crop he can cut down the old trunk and grow the new suckers. This process is called "Ratooning". The weak suckers are cut off and the strongest sucker is retained for the next cycle.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">About Banana</span></b><br />
Banana is the second most important fruit crop next to mango. Its year round availability, affordability, varietal range, taste, nutritive and medicinal value makes it the favorite fruit among all classes of people. It also has good export potential. Banana is grown in more than 120 countries with a global production of 95 million tonnes and highest producer being India (16 million tonnes). Even though banana is used for many purposes, major portion of the production is used for dessert purpose.<br />
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Due to its rich nutrient content and ease of production Banana is referred to as "<span style="color: #e06666;">Tree of Paradise</span>".<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Cultivation</span></b><br />
Banana is a Tropical crop, grows well in temperatures ranging from 15 degrees to 35 degrees, temperature above 38 degree causes scorching and temperature below 12 degree causes chilling injury and leads to a condition called "choke" or "impeded inflorescence".<br />
The optimum Relative humidity is 75 -85 percent.<br />
Banana should be avoided in areas with wind velocity greater than 80 km/hr unless the field is protected with wind checks.<br />
An average rainfall of 120 mm per month distributed over 4 months is optimum for Banana growth however regions with high rainfall may cause water stagnation which in turn cause diseases like "Panama wilt".<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Soil </span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Banana is a high feeder crop hence the soil must be rich in nutrients.</li>
<li>Loamy soils rich in organic matter is optimum for Banana.</li>
<li>Even though banana requires heavy irrigation, it cannot with stand water stagnation, hence soils with poor drainage capacity should be avoided since it favors diseases like "Panama Wilt".</li>
<li>Saline soils with salinity percentage exceeding 0.05 are unsuitable for cultivation.</li>
<li>Soil pH of 6 to 7.5 is most suitable for Banana.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Seasons</span></b><br />
Planting of Tissue culture Banana can be done throughout the year provided the right temperature. although the ideal season for all Banana is Oct-Nov.<br />
Time of planing also varies depending on the geographical conditions and duration of the crop:<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Varieties </span></b><br />
<b>Dessert</b> : Robusta, Dwarf Cavendish, Grand Naine, Rasthali, Vayal vazhai, Poovan, Nendran, Red Banana, Karpooravalli, Co.1, Matti, Sannachenkadali, Udayam and Neypoovan are popular varieties in banana. Cavendish groups are generally prefered in export market.<br />
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<b>Culinary</b> : Monthan, Vayal vazhai, Ash Monthan and Chakkia are cultivated for culinary purpose. Nendran is a dual purpose variety used for dessert and culinary.<br />
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<b>Hill areas</b> : The popular varieties of bananas suitable for hilly areas are Virupakshi, Sirumalai and Namarai. Red Banana, Manoranjitham (Santhana vazhai) and Ladan are also cultivated in hills.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Propagation</span></b><br />
Banana can be propagated vegetatively using "Sword Suckers" and Tissue culture seedlings although 70 percent of the farmers use Suckers for cultivation.<br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Sword suckers with well developed rhizome, conical or spherical in shape having actively growing conical bud, 3 to 4 months old and weighing approximately 1 to 1.2 kg are commonly used as propagating material. </li>
<li>The suckers must be free from disease and soil borne pathogens.</li>
<li>Trim the roots and decayed portion of the corm, cut the pseudostem leaving 20 cm from the corm and grade the suckers to size.</li>
<li>Tissue culture seedlings must be atleast 30 cm tall and 5 am in girth should have 5 leaves and must be True to Type.</li>
<li>To avoid wilt disease infected portions of the corm may be pared and dipped for 5 minutes in 0.1% Emisan solution.</li>
<li>Pralinage is done with 40 g of Carbofuran 3 G granules per sucker.</li>
<li>Dipping the corm with 0.75% Monocrotophos helps controlling Nemadodes.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Field Preparation :</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>In case of Wetlands, no preparatory tillage is necessary.</li>
<li>In case of Garden lands, 2 to 4 ploughing is necessary.</li>
<li>In case of Hill bananas cleaning the jungle and construction of contour stone walls before planting is required.</li>
<li>Prior to planting banana, grow the green manuring crop like daincha, cowpea plough insist in the field.The selected field must be ploughed 4-6 times and allowed to weather for two weeks.</li>
<li>Rotovator or harrow is used to break the clod and bring the soil to a fine tilt. During soil preparation basal dose of FYM (about 50 tonnes/ha. before last harrowing) is added and thoroughly mixed into the soil.</li>
<li>The field is leveled by passing a blade harrow or laser leveler.</li>
<li>A pit size of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm is normally required. The pits are to be refilled with topsoil mixed with 10 kg of FYM (well decomposed), 250 gm of Neem cake and 20 gm of carbofuron.</li>
<li>In areas where nematode problem is prevalent, nematicides and fumigants are also added to pits before planting.</li>
<li>Plough furrows may be formed length wise and breadth wise of the field at the required spacing and its intersection of the plough furrows pits of size 0.6m x 0.6m x 0.6m are dug sufficiently ahead at points fixed for planting.</li>
<li>Spacing Between Plants : Plant population depends on cultivars, topography and soil fertility.</li>
</ul>
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High density planting can be adopted for higher productivity. Plant 3 suckers / pit at a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6m (4600 plants/ha) for Cavendish varieties and 2 m x 3 m for Nendran (5000 plants/ha).<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Planting </span></b><br />
Planting can be done in May-June or in September - October. Single sucker is planted upright in small pits taken in the centre leaving 5 cm pseudostem above soil level. Soil is pressed around the sucker to avoid hollow air spaces. Tissue culture plants are planted on the top of the pit at ground level. Poly cover should be removed before planting without damaging the roots. Planting is followed by light irrigation. Partial shade should be provided immediately after planting. Application of 25g of Pseudomonas florescence/plant is recommended at the time of planting.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">System of Planting :</span></b><br />
<br />
1. <b>Single Row planting</b> - In this system the distance within the row is close, whereas the distance between the row is wide. It enables good aeration between plant canopy, allowing wet leaves to dry more rapidly, reducing fungal disease severity. It accommodates lesser no. of plants hence the yield is comparatively low compared to other systems.<br />
<br />
2. <b>Paired Row System</b> - In this system, the distance between the two lines is 0.90 to 1.20 m. while plant to plant distance is 1.2 to 2 m. It enable ease during intercultural operations.<br />
<br />
3. <b>Square System</b> - Most commonly followed system of planting, spacing adopted 1.8x1.8m spacing. In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever may be the planting distance. The central space of the square can be used to grow short lived filler plants.<br />
<br />
4. <b>Triangular System</b> : This system is best suited for tissue culture banana suckers. In this system adopted spacing in between rows was 1.5 m and plant to plant was 1.8 m in the row.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Methods of Planting</span></b><br />
<br />
1. <b>Pit Method</b> - Pit planting is commonly followed in garden land system of cultivation. Pits of 60 cm x 60 x 60 cm x 60 cm size are dug, filled with a mixture of soil, sand and FYM (Farm Yard Manure) in a 1:1:1 ratio. Suckers are planted in the centre of the pit and soil around is compacted. However this method is very laborious and expensive. The only advantage is that no earthing up is required as planting is done at the required depth. This practice is not very popular at present.<br />
<br />
2. <b>Trench Method</b> - Trench planting is practised in wet land cultivation of Cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu. Land is prepared like paddy using plenty of water and gauge wheel. Water is drained from the field allowing setting for a day. Planting is done by simple pressing the suckers into the wet field. After a week 15 cm deep trenches are opened both ways maintaining 4 or 6 plants in each block. Deepening of trenches by 20-25 cm is taken up every month after planting till suckers put forth 1-3 leaves. During third month trenches are broadened and deepened to 60 cm. in rainy season some trenches are used as drainage channels. After about 2 months, trenches are cleaned; decayed manure is used for plants for organic cycling.<br />
<br />
3. <b>Furrow Method</b> - After land preparation, 30-40 cm deep furrows are made, either manually or with a ridges. Suckers are placed at required spacing; FYM is applied around, mixed with soil and tightly packed round the suckers. Furrow planting is practiced in annual panting system. In this method earthing up needs to be frequently done to cover the exposed rhizomes.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Fertilizer Management </span></b><br />
<br />
Recommended dosage of Fertilizer for Banana :<br />
1. Garden Land - N:P:K = 110:35:330<br />
2. Wetland - N:P:K = 210:35:410<br />
<br />
Fertigation Schedule for Banana :<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-tvbLthn92T0/XTh0fZztlRI/AAAAAAAABCk/rQuC44aVCVorjxRF3ERibbal5aNSQ7lUQCPcBGAYYCw/s1600/Capture2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="195" data-original-width="699" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-tvbLthn92T0/XTh0fZztlRI/AAAAAAAABCk/rQuC44aVCVorjxRF3ERibbal5aNSQ7lUQCPcBGAYYCw/s1600/Capture2.JPG" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
For Tissue culture banana, apply 50% extra fertilizers at 2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th month after planting.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Intecultural Operations :</span></b><br />
<br />
1.<b>Desuckering </b>: Desuckering or pruning is the removal of unwanted suckers. It is either done by cutting off the sucker or destroying the heart without detaching the sucker. During the growth of the mother plant, the suckers arise from its rhizomes from time to time. If all these suckers are allowed to grow, the mother plant looses its vigour and normal development resulting in lower bunch weight and total yield. Therefore the suckers should not be allowed to grow near the parent plant till the mother plant commences flowering. At flowering (six months after planting), a vigorous growing sword sucker should be allowed to grow and one more sucker is encouraged to shoot out from the soil when the parent plant matures its fruits. Thus the parent plant has completed its life, it has only two suckers. When the mother plant is harvested and removed, the first sucker which is 6 months old takes the lead and becomes the mother plant in the next generation and thus the successive generations of suckers arising one after the other at 6 months interval perpetuate.<br />
<br />
2. <b>Propping</b> : It is a method by which support is given to banana bearing plants with the help of bamboo, casuarinas or eucalyptus poles, protecting them from bending or falling down due to heavy bunch load and from heavy damage by wind. It is very essential for tall varieties.<br />
<br />
3. <b>Trashing</b> : It is the removal of undesirable material from the banana field like dried, diseased and decayed leaves, pseudo stem after harvest, male bud, last end of inflorescence and withered floral parts.<br />
<br />
4. <b>Mattocking</b> : After harvest of the bunch, the plant stem should be cut in stages at least after 30-45 days to facilitate mobilization of the nutrients from the mother to the<br />
developing ratoon plant. The pseudo stem should be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6m height.<br />
<br />
5. <b>Wrapping</b> : It is covering of bunches with polythene or gunny cloth that protects the fruits from intense heat, hot wind etc. and improves the colour of the fruits.<br />
<br />
6. <b>Tipping</b> : It is the removal of heart or male bud. The large heart shaped flower bud, contains infertile male flowers in reddish scale leaves. This heart flower bud persists even after the fertile flowers have developed and formed in to a bunch. It should be cut soon after the bunch is formed, other wise it is likely to use up some of the food, which would otherwise go to the development of fruits. It is a practice recommended for improving the appearance of the bunch as well as to ward off fingertip‘ disease.<br />
<br />
7. <b>Removal of floral remnants</b> : The removal of dried and persistent floral remnants present at the apex of the fruit or finger helps in preventing the spread of fungal diseases. These floral remnants provide shelter to some of the fungal spores.<br />
<br />
8. <b>Earthing Up</b> : It should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage and to avoid water logging at the base. It is to be done once in 2 or 3 months to prevent soil erosion from the basins and to avoid direct contact of water with pseudo stem. Due to earthing up there are fair chances of formation of good root system. It is better that whole rows of banana are strongly ridged up about 10 inch high.<br />
<br />
9. <b>Weeding</b> : In the first four months after planting, it is necessary to remove weeds. The stirring of the soil by the spade after every 6 or 7 irrigations is necessary to maintain its tilth and absorptive power. Weeds can also be checked by the use of herbicides. Diuron @ 4 kg per hectare and simazine @ 6kgper hectare control grasses and broad leaved weeds when applied after planting and repeated 30 days after planting. Glyphosate @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare at the time of planting followed by 0.5 kg a.i.per hectare at 30 and 60 days after planting of suckers is recommended. Banana is sensitive to 2, 4-D and hence the phenoxy compounds are not used.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Harvest</span></b><br />
Banana fruits develop parthenocarpically. Banana comes to flowering in about 9 months after planting. The dwarf bananas are ready for harvest with in 11-14 months after planting, while tall cultivars take about 14-16 months to harvest. The fruits become ready in 3-4 months after flowering. Dwarf Cavendish variety takes about 11 months, Robusta 12 months and poovan about 13 months from planting to<br />
harvesting. Banana is categorized as climacteric fruit. Fruits don‘t ripe early and uniformly on the plant. The maturity standards of banana fruit, although vary with the variety and the purpose of marketing, can be judged by physical characters as well as by chemical analysis. The physical characters like colour, shape, size and the ratio between consumable to non-consumable portions are taken in to consideration. The total period required from planting to first harvesting is also taken into consideration for harvesting of the bunch. In India the main banana season is from September to April.<br />
<br />
The indications of maturity for harvesting are:<br />
1. The fruits are harvested when top leaves start drying.<br />
2. Change in colour of the fruit from deep green to light green.<br />
3. Tendency of floral ends of the fruits to shed with slightest touch of the hand.<br />
4. Fruits should be plump and their angles should have rounded off i.e.; after the attainment of ¾ th full stage before the bunch is harvested.<br />
<br />
<br />
For export purpose, three fourths of the full maturity stage (recognized by the sharp angularities of the fingers) is considered to harvest. At this stage, the dwarf Cavendish shows a pulp-skin ratio of 35:1 or 40:1. The entire bunch is harvested with one-foot long stalk. After 15 minutes of harvest, when the latex flow ceases, the bunch should be packed properly and should not be allowed to come in contact with soil.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Yield</span></b><br />
Yield of banana varies with variety, agro climatic situation and management practices adopted for production. Under Indian condition, varying yield between 15-40 tonnes per hectare has been reported. Tall cultivars usually yield 15-20 tonnes /ha. Dwarf varieties are 30-40 tonnes per hectare.<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-29823622136489697242019-08-12T14:40:00.000+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.504+05:30Banana<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="color: #e06666;">Botanical Name : Musa Sp</span><br />
<span style="color: #e06666;">Family : Musaceae </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Origin and History :</span></b><br />
Banana is one of the oldest fruits crops known to man, Banana evolved in the humid tropical regions of S.E.Asia with India as one of its centres of origin. Modern edible varieties have evolved from the two species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana and their natural hybrids, originally found in the rain forests of S.E.Asia. During the seventh century AD its cultivation spread to Egypt and Africa. At present banana is being cultivated throughout the warm tropical regions of the world between 300 N and 300 S of the equator.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Few Points about Banana :</span></b><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Banana is a C3 and long day plant.</li>
<li>Even though banana is an edible fruit, botanically it is classified as a "Berry".</li>
<li>Banana plant is herb which can grow up to 20 feet in high, the herb arises from an underground stem called Rhizome.</li>
<li>The major length of the plant is composed of the basal portions of leaf sheaths and is crowned with a rosette of 10 to 20 oblong to elliptic leaves that sometimes attain a length of 10–11.5 feet and a breadth of 65 cm.</li>
<li>The portion of the plant right above the soil up till the crown region is called false trunk.</li>
<li>The inflorescence of Banana is called "Spike" The inflorescence carrying numerous yellowish flowers protected by large purple-red bracts, emerges at the top of the false trunk and bends downward to become bunches of 50 to 150 individual fruits or fingers.</li>
<li>The individual fruits, or bananas, are grouped in clusters, or hands, of 10 to 20.</li>
<li>The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. </li>
<li>Only one Bunch of fruit is produced from a trunk its growing period. after completion of one crop cycle new small plants called "Suckers" arise out from the Rhizome. If the farmer is interested in continuing the crop he can cut down the old trunk and grow the new suckers. This process is called "Ratooning". The weak suckers are cut off and the strongest sucker is retained for the next cycle.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">About Banana</span></b></div>
<div>
Banana is the second most important fruit crop next to mango. Its year round availability, affordability, varietal range, taste, nutritive and medicinal value makes it the favorite fruit among all classes of people. It also has good export potential. Banana is grown in more than 120 countries with a global production of 95 million tonnes and highest producer being India (16 million tonnes). Even though banana is used for many purposes, major portion of the production is used for dessert purpose.</div>
<div>
Due to its rich nutrient content and ease of production Banana is referred to as "Tree of Paradise".</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Cultivation</span></b></div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Banana is a Tropical crop, grows well in temperatures ranging from 15 degrees to 35 degrees, temperature above 38 degree causes scorching and temperature below 12 degree causes chilling injury and leads to a condition called "choke" or "impeded inflorescence".</li>
<li>The optimum Relative humidity is 75 -85 percent.</li>
<li>Banana should be avoided in areas with wind velocity greater than 80 km/hr unless the field is protected with wind checks.</li>
<li>An average rainfall of 120 mm per month distributed over 4 months is optimum for Banana growth however regions with high rainfall may cause water stagnation which in turn cause diseases like "Panama wilt".</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Soil </span></b></div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Banana is a high feeder crop hence the soil must be rich in nutrients.</li>
<li>Loamy soils rich in organic matter is optimum for Banana.</li>
<li>Even though banana requires heavy irrigation, it cannot with stand water stagnation, hence soils with poor drainage capacity should be avoided since it favors diseases like "Panama Wilt".</li>
<li>Saline soils with salinity percentage exceeding 0.05 are unsuitable for cultivation.</li>
<li>Soil pH of 6 to 7.5 is most suitable for Banana.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="color: #93c47d;"><b>Seasons</b></span></div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Planting of Tissue culture Banana can be done throughout the year provided the right temperature. although the ideal season for all Banana is Oct-Nov</li>
<li>Time of planing also varies depending on the geographical conditions and duration of the crop:</li>
</ul>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-f9AEScKl3sw/XThX0R9VMeI/AAAAAAAABB0/rFqkGMWUn9gbuSUdxKANcRVa1I1r9IlBACEwYBhgL/s1600/Capture.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="154" data-original-width="606" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-f9AEScKl3sw/XThX0R9VMeI/AAAAAAAABB0/rFqkGMWUn9gbuSUdxKANcRVa1I1r9IlBACEwYBhgL/s1600/Capture.JPG" /></a></div>
<div>
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</div>
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Varieties </span></b><br />
Dessert : Robusta, Dwarf Cavendish, Grand Naine, Rasthali, Vayal vazhai, Poovan, Nendran, Red Banana, Karpooravalli, Co.1, Matti, Sannachenkadali, Udayam and Neypoovan are popular varieties in banana. Cavendish groups are generally prefered in export market.<br />
<br />
Culinary : Monthan, Vayal vazhai, Ash Monthan and Chakkia are cultivated for culinary purpose. Nendran is a dual purpose variety used for dessert and culinary.<br />
<br />
Hill areas : The popular varieties of bananas suitable for hilly areas are Virupakshi, Sirumalai and Namarai. Red Banana, Manoranjitham (Santhana vazhai) and Ladan are also cultivated in hills.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Propagation</span></b><br />
Banana can be propagated vegetatively using "Sword Suckers" and Tissue culture seedlings although 70 percent of the farmers use Suckers for cultivation.<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Sword suckers with well developed rhizome, conical or spherical in shape having actively growing conical bud, 3 to 4 months old and weighing approximately 1 to 1.2 kg are commonly used as propagating material. </li>
<li>The suckers must be free from disease and soil borne pathogens.</li>
<li>Trim the roots and decayed portion of the corm, cut the pseudostem leaving 20 cm from the corm and grade the suckers to size.</li>
<li>Tissue culture seedlings must be atleast 30 cm tall and 5 am in girth should have 5 leaves and must be True to Type.</li>
<li>To avoid wilt disease infected portions of the corm may be pared and dipped for 5 minutes in 0.1% Emisan solution.</li>
<li>Pralinage is done with 40 g of Carbofuran 3 G granules per sucker.</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; text-align: justify;">Dipping the corm with 0.75% Monocrotophos helps controlling Nemadodes.</span></li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #93c47d; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px;"><b>Field Preparation :</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<ul>
<li>In case of Wetlands, no preparatory tillage is necessary.</li>
<li>In case of Garden lands, 2 to 4 ploughing is necessary.</li>
<li>In case of Hill bananas cleaning the jungle and construction of contour stone walls before planting is required.</li>
<li>Prior to planting banana, grow the green manuring crop like daincha, cowpea plough insist in the field.The selected field must be ploughed 4-6 times and allowed to weather for two weeks.</li>
<li>Rotovator or harrow is used to break the clod and bring the soil to a fine tilt. During soil preparation basal dose of FYM (about 50 tonnes/ha. before last harrowing) is added and thoroughly mixed into the soil.</li>
<li>The field is leveled by passing a blade harrow or laser leveler.</li>
<li>A pit size of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm is normally required. The pits are to be refilled with topsoil mixed with 10 kg of FYM (well decomposed), 250 gm of Neem cake and 20 gm of carbofuron.</li>
<li>In areas where nematode problem is prevalent, nematicides and fumigants are also added to pits before planting.</li>
<li>Plough furrows may be formed length wise and breadth wise of the field at the required spacing and its intersection of the plough furrows pits of size 0.6m x 0.6m x 0.6m are dug sufficiently ahead at points fixed for planting.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Spacing Between Plants : Plant population depends on cultivars, topography and soil fertility.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Q-5G-4A6TGY/XThjrN0cGGI/AAAAAAAABCI/97Z6xnVROVELJvkT0qI8jLvsPsLaNcrRgCLcBGAs/s1600/Capture1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="279" data-original-width="577" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Q-5G-4A6TGY/XThjrN0cGGI/AAAAAAAABCI/97Z6xnVROVELJvkT0qI8jLvsPsLaNcrRgCLcBGAs/s1600/Capture1.JPG" /></a></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px;">High density planting can be adopted for higher productivity. Plant 3 suckers / pit at a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6m (4600 plants/ha) for Cavendish varieties and 2 m x 3 m for Nendran (5000 plants/ha).</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Planting </span></b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">Planting can be done in May-June or in September - October. Single sucker is planted upright in small pits taken in the centre leaving 5 cm pseudostem above soil level. Soil is pressed around the sucker to avoid hollow air spaces. Tissue culture plants are planted on the top of the pit at ground level. Poly cover should be removed before planting without damaging the roots. Planting is followed by light irrigation. Partial shade should be provided immediately after planting. Application of 25g of Pseudomonas florescence/plant is recommended at the time of planting.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">System of Planting :</span></b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">1. <b>Single Row planting</b> - In this system the distance within the row is close, whereas the distance between the row is wide. It enables good aeration between plant canopy, allowing wet leaves to dry more rapidly, reducing fungal disease severity. It accommodates lesser no. of plants hence the yield is comparatively low compared to other systems.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">2. <b>Paired Row System</b> - In this system, the distance between the two lines is 0.90 to 1.20 m. while plant to plant distance is 1.2 to 2 m. It enable ease during intercultural operations.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">3. <b>Square System</b> - Most commonly followed system of planting, spacing adopted </span><span style="font-size: 13px;"> 1.8x1.8m spacing. In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever may be the planting distance. The central space of the square can be used to grow short lived filler plants.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">4. <b>Triangular System</b> : This system is best suited for tissue culture banana suckers. </span><span style="font-size: 13px;">In this system adopted spacing in between rows was 1.5 m and plant to plant was 1.8 m in the row.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Methods of Planting</span></b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">1.Pit Method - Pit planting is commonly followed in garden land system of cultivation. Pits of 60 cm x 60 x 60 cm x 60 cm size are dug, filled with a mixture of soil, sand and FYM (Farm Yard Manure) in a 1:1:1 ratio. Suckers are planted in the centre of the pit and soil around is compacted. However this method is very laborious and expensive. The only advantage is that no earthing up is required as planting is done at the required depth. This practice is not very popular at present.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">2. Trench Method - Trench planting is practised in wet land cultivation of Cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu. Land is prepared like paddy using plenty of water and gauge wheel. </span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Water is drained from the field allowing setting for a day. Planting is done by simple pressing the suckers into the wet field. </span><span style="font-size: 13px;">After a week 15 cm deep trenches are opened both ways maintaining 4 or 6 plants in each block. </span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Deepening of trenches by 20-25 cm is taken up every month after planting till suckers put forth 1-3 leaves. </span><span style="font-size: 13px;">During third month trenches are broadened and deepened to 60 cm. in rainy season some trenches are used as drainage channels. After about 2 months, trenches are cleaned; decayed manure is used for plants for organic cycling.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;">3. Furrow Method - After land preparation, 30-40 cm deep furrows are made, either manually or with a ridges. </span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Suckers are placed at required spacing; FYM is applied around, mixed with soil and tightly packed round the suckers. Furrow planting is practiced in annual panting system. In this method earthing up needs to be frequently done to cover the exposed rhizomes.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 13px;"><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Fertilizer Management </span></b></span></div>
Recommended dosage of Fertilizer for Banana :<br />
1. Garden Land - N:P:K = 110:35:330<br />
2. Wetland - N:P:K = 210:35:410<br />
<br />
Fertigation Schedule for Banana :<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-tvbLthn92T0/XTh0fZztlRI/AAAAAAAABCg/m1myON0a7RAwoanc2upc_9jC3o1P9lopwCEwYBhgL/s1600/Capture2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="195" data-original-width="699" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-tvbLthn92T0/XTh0fZztlRI/AAAAAAAABCg/m1myON0a7RAwoanc2upc_9jC3o1P9lopwCEwYBhgL/s1600/Capture2.JPG" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
For Tissue culture banana, apply 50% extra fertilizers at 2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th month after planting.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Intecultural Operations :</span></b><br />
<br />1.Desuckering : Desuckering or pruning is the removal of unwanted suckers. It is either done by cutting off the sucker or destroying the heart without detaching the sucker. During the growth of the mother plant, the suckers arise from its rhizomes from time to time. If all these suckers are allowed to grow, the mother plant looses its vigour and normal development resulting in lower bunch weight and total yield. Therefore the suckers should not be allowed to grow near the parent plant till the mother plant commences flowering. At flowering (six months after planting), a vigorous growing sword sucker should be allowed to grow and one more sucker is encouraged to shoot out from the soil when the parent plant matures its fruits. Thus the parent plant has completed its life, it has only two suckers. When the mother plant is harvested and removed, the first sucker which is 6 months old takes the lead and becomes the mother plant in the next generation and thus the successive generations of suckers arising one after the other at 6 months interval perpetuate.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">2. Propping : It is a method by which support is given to banana bearing plants with the help of bamboo, casuarinas or eucalyptus poles, protecting them from bending or falling down due to heavy bunch load and from heavy damage by wind. It is very essential for tall varieties.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">3. Trashing : It is the removal of undesirable material from the banana field like dried, diseased and decayed leaves, pseudo stem after harvest, male bud, last end of inflorescence and withered floral parts.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">4. Mattocking : After harvest of the bunch, the plant stem should be cut in stages at least after 30-45 days to facilitate mobilization of the nutrients from the mother to the <div style="text-align: justify;">
developing ratoon plant. The pseudo stem should be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6m height.</div>
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5. Wrapping : It is covering of bunches with polythene or gunny cloth that protects the fruits from intense heat, hot wind etc. and improves the colour of the fruits.</div>
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6. Tipping : It is the removal of heart or male bud. The large heart shaped flower bud, contains infertile male flowers in reddish scale leaves. This heart flower bud persists even after the fertile flowers have developed and formed in to a bunch. It should be cut soon after the bunch is formed, other wise it is likely to use up some of the food, which would otherwise go to the development of fruits. It is a practice recommended for improving the appearance of the bunch as well as to ward off fingertip‘ disease. </div>
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7. Removal of floral remnants : The removal of dried and persistent floral remnants present at the apex of the fruit or finger helps in preventing the spread of fungal diseases. These floral remnants provide shelter to some of the fungal spores.</div>
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8. Earthing Up : It should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage and to avoid water logging at the base. It is to be done once in 2 or 3 months to prevent soil erosion from the basins and to avoid direct contact of water with pseudo stem. Due to earthing up there are fair chances of formation of good root system. It is better that whole rows of banana are strongly ridged up about 10 inch high.</div>
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9. Weeding : In the first four months after planting, it is necessary to remove weeds. The stirring of the soil by the spade after every 6 or 7 irrigations is necessary to maintain its tilth and absorptive power. Weeds can also be checked by the use of herbicides. Diuron @ 4 kg per hectare and simazine @ 6kgper hectare control grasses and broad leaved weeds when applied after planting and repeated 30 days after planting. Glyphosate @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare at the time of planting followed by 0.5 kg a.i.per hectare at 30 and 60 days after planting of suckers is recommended. Banana is sensitive to 2, 4-D and hence the phenoxy compounds are not used.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Harvest</span></b></div>
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Banana fruits develop parthenocarpically. Banana comes to flowering in about 9 months after planting. The dwarf bananas are ready for harvest with in 11-14 months after planting, while tall cultivars take about 14-16 months to harvest. The fruits become ready in 3-4 months after flowering. Dwarf Cavendish variety takes about 11 months, Robusta 12 months and poovan about 13 months from planting to </div>
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harvesting. Banana is categorized as climacteric fruit. Fruits don‘t ripe early and uniformly on the plant. The maturity standards of banana fruit, although vary with the variety and the purpose of marketing, can be judged by physical characters as well as by chemical analysis. The physical characters like colour, shape, size and the ratio between consumable to non-consumable portions are taken in to consideration. The total period required from planting to first harvesting is also taken into consideration for harvesting of the bunch. In India the main banana season is from September to April. </div>
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<b>The indications of maturity for harvesting are: </b> </div>
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1. The fruits are harvested when top leaves start drying. </div>
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2. Change in colour of the fruit from deep green to light green. </div>
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3. Tendency of floral ends of the fruits to shed with slightest touch of the hand. </div>
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4. Fruits should be plump and their angles should have rounded off i.e.; after the attainment of ¾ th full stage before the bunch is harvested. </div>
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For export purpose, three fourths of the full maturity stage (recognized by the sharp angularities of the fingers) is considered to harvest. At this stage, the dwarf Cavendish shows a pulp-skin ratio of 35:1 or 40:1. The entire bunch is harvested with one-foot long stalk. After 15 minutes of harvest, when the latex flow ceases, the bunch should be packed properly and should not be allowed to come in contact with soil. </div>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Yield</span></b></div>
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Yield of banana varies with variety, agro climatic situation and management practices adopted for production. Under Indian condition, varying yield between 15-40 tonnes per hectare has been reported. Tall cultivars usually yield 15-20 tonnes /ha. Dwarf varieties are 30-40 tonnes per hectare.</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-42937550187775509372019-07-18T20:41:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.512+05:30Maize<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #e06666;">Botanical Name : Zea mays</span><br />
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<span style="color: #e06666;">Family : Poaceae</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #93c47d; font-weight: bold;">Origin and History :</span><span style="color: #444444;"><b>The exact region of origin of maize still not clear although archaeologists believe that maize was </b></span><span style="color: #444444;"><b>first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The crop was developed by Red Indians from which it passed on to the European immigrants and then spread gradually all over the world. The crop has become so cosmopolitan that today in one area or the other of the world, maize is being planted and cultivated practically every week of the year. It was introduced into India by the East India company and has now spread to a very large areas of the country. The earliest maize plants that grew were very small, 25 millimetre long corn cobs, and only one per plant, many centuries of artificial selection by the indigenous people of the Americas resulted in the development of maize plants capable of growing several cobs per plant, which were usually several centimetre/inches long each.</b></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Few Points about Maize</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Maize has the highest yield potential among all the cereals.</li>
<li>Maize plants can grow up to 12 ft in height, some natural strains grow up to 40 ft in height.</li>
<li>The stem is commonly composed of 20 internodes of 18 cm in length.Leaves grow from each node, is generally 9 cm in width and 120 cm in length.</li>
<li> Female inflorescences called ears develop in between stem and leaf sheath, it is tightly covered by a few layers of leaves called husks, elongated stigma called Silks emerge out of the husk, The silks upon fertilization from the pollen produce the kernels.</li>
<li>A Ear(Cob) generally contains 600 kenels.</li>
<li>The male inflorescence is called Tassel and is developed at the end of the stem apex.</li>
<li>Maize is a Short day plant and C4 plant.</li>
<li>Yellow colour in maize is due to the pigment "Cryptoxanthin".</li>
</ul>
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<span style="color: blue;"></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Note : Certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce many additional developed ears. These are the source of the "baby corn".</span></b></div>
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<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Maize </span></b><br />
Maize is one of the most important food crop since it has multiple uses, it is the 3rd most important staple crop, it is used for fodder purpose and it has wide industrial application. Due to its wide range of applications and high genetic yield potential, Maize is referred to as "<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Queen of Cereals</span></b>".<br />
Maize is a highly flexible crop, it has wide range of adaptability hence it can be grown throughout the year in almost all types of geographical conditions. It is the most produced cereal among the world, the production of maize in 2014 was more than 1 Billion.<br />
Even though maize is a staple crop, a very little proportion of the production is directly consumed by the humans, the majority of the production is used for the production of corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.<br />
Depending on its uses there are seven major types of Maize :<br />
<br />
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Dent Corn (Zea mays indenta) : Mostly grown in USA.</li>
<li>Flint Corn (Zea mays indurata) : Mostly cultivated in India.</li>
<li>Sweet Corn (Zea mays saccharata) : These type of corn is widely used in canning industry.</li>
<li>Flour Corn (Zea mays ammylacea) </li>
<li>Pop Corn (Zea mays everta) : It is widely used in preparation of pop corn, corn flakes.</li>
<li>Waxy Corn (Zea mays ceratina) </li>
<li>Pod Corn (Zea mays zunicata) </li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Nutrient content</span></b> : Protein- 10% Oil – 4% Carbohydrates – 70% Fat – 5 to 7% Fiber – 3 to 5% Minerals – 2%, it lacks protein tryphtophan and lysine.</span></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #93c47d; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Cultivation</span></h3>
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Maize is highly flexible crop, can be grown in all types of environments, any area with an average rainfall between 500 to 800mm is suitable for cultivation, It can be grown in all types of soils provided the soil has good drinage capacity since Maize is highly suseptible to water logging.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Climate and Soil :</span></b></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Maize has a very divergent climatic requirement, it is a temperate crop meaning it needs warm temperature for good growth, maize is highly susceptible to frost hence region with very low temperature should be avoided for cultivation. Optimum temperature for maize growth is 32 degree Celsius although it can survive at temperatures as high as 42 degree. The night temperature should not fall below 15 degrees.</li>
<li> It is widely cultivated from 3900m MSL though it varies with latitudes.</li>
<li>Maize also grows well when it has a lot of sun shine since it is a C4 plant.</li>
<li>Rainfall from 550 mm to 800 mm is sufficient enough for good growth.</li>
<li>Any type of soil is good for cultivation unless the soil has intermediate moisture retention capacity since Maize is sensitive to both excess and low moisture content.</li>
<li>Optimum soil pH is 6.5 to 7.5.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Seasons :</span></b></div>
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Kharif crop - Sowing done with the onset of monsoon (June to july or September to october).</div>
</div>
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Rabi Crop - Sowing done in Jan - Feb.</div>
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Although due its wide adaptability Maize is grown through out the year and most commonly grown is the Kharif crop.</div>
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<span style="color: #93c47d; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b>Seeds and Sowing :</b></span></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The seeds of best suited variety must be selected for best yields.</li>
<li>The selected seeds must be free from weeds and any other physical impurities with good germination percentage.</li>
<li>Optimum plant population for high yields is 60000 to 80000 plants/ha. The recommended spacing is 45*25 cm.</li>
<li>The most widely followed method of sowing is dibbling and the seed rate is 20 to 25 kg/ha.</li>
<li>Depth of sowing should not be more than 5 cm.</li>
<li>Optimum temperature for germination is 21 degree.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Land Preparation :</span></b></div>
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</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>At least 2-3 shallow tillage operations should be done during summer season in all maize growing areas. </li>
<li>One Deep ploughing should be done which is helpful in controlling weeds and is also efficient in moisture conservation.</li>
<li>Maize requires a firm seed bed free from hard pans and stubble hence field has to be brought to a fine tilth by repeated plowing and harrowing.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Nutrient Management :</span></b></div>
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Recommended dosage of Nutrients:</div>
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Irrigated - N:P:K = 120-150:60-75:35</div>
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Rainfed - N:P:K = 100:50:35</div>
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Note it is also necessary to feed the soil with Zn once every season at the rate of 35 to 50 kg/ha of ZnSO4 for optimum yield.</div>
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A balanced and integrated nutrient management plays a pivotal role in maize cultivation. The nutrient uptake depends on soil fertility status, variety, crop growth stage, plant density and time of cultural operations</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Care has to be taken that the crop gets continuous supply of N throughout the growing period while higher concentration of P is required during the early growth stages to ensure proper root development.</li>
<li>In case of rainfed crop, entire dose of fertilizer should be applied as basal dose.</li>
<li>In case of irrigated crop, 1/4th of the dose applied during sowing and 1/2 of the dose of N should be applied during the knee high stage along with full dose of P and K. rest 1/4th of N should be applied during Pre-tasseling stage(45-50 DAS).</li>
<li>Fertilizer should be applied past noon when there is no dew. soon after the application the soil has to be mixed up using a hoe followed by irrigation.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Weed Management</span></b></div>
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<b>Important weeds in Maize:</b></div>
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Grasses - cynodon dactylon, Echinoclhloa colonum.</div>
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Sedges - cyperus iria, eleusine indica, Cyperus rotundus</div>
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Broad leaved - Tribulus terrestris, Solanum nigrum, Phyllanthus sps striga, Celosisa argentina </div>
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Maize needs two intercultivations and two handweedings depending on the severity of infestation.</div>
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timely weeding helps facilitates proper aeration to the plants by loosening the soil.</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>1st Intercultivation should be done 20 to 25 DAS between the ridges, the implement should not go too near and deep since it might injure the growing roots.</li>
<li>2nd Intercultivation should be done during 55 to 60 DAS as earthing up.</li>
<li>Hand weeding should be done according to requirement.</li>
<li>Post 90 days no weed control is necessary since weed emergence is inhibited due to smothering effect by the plants.</li>
</ul>
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<b>Chemical control of weeds :</b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Pre emergence application of Simazine, Atrazine at 2 kg/ha can be used for initial weed control.</li>
<li>Post emergence application of 2,4 DEE at 1 ½ -2 kg/ha at any time when maize is about 20 cm height is effective against weeds.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Water Management</span></b></div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Maize is sensitive to both moisture stress and excess water, total water requirement of maize is 550m to 800mm which depends on season and other factors like growth stages, weather.</li>
<li>It is advisable to grow the crop on the side of the ridges in areas with poor drainage or heavy rainfall or on black soils.</li>
<li>Maize should be irrigated lightly just moisten the soil with an regular intervals of 8 to 10 days.</li>
<li>The critical period of irrigation in Maize is the flowering stage hence care should be taken to provide sufficient moisture during this stage.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Harvesting :</span></b></div>
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<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Hybrid maize matures within 100 to 110 DAS while the varieties take up to 130 days to mature.</li>
<li>Harvesting should be done when the husk cover turns pale brown and the grains are too hard to be pressed in with finger nail. </li>
<li>Time of harvesting may vary depending on purpose of the crop Ex - If the crop is grown for fodder purpose then it is harvested sooner.</li>
</ul>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-79706224377928204862019-07-18T12:27:00.000+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.518+05:30Wheat<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #444444;">Botanical name : Triticum aestivum</span><br />
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bPo2yTUeyv8/XS8krdMilxI/AAAAAAAAA-M/9pnmxyxOJ4wqRrzGraExfU0isxr1ViRggCLcBGAs/s1600/ruslan-zh-5CldgrlKlkE-unsplash.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="266" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bPo2yTUeyv8/XS8krdMilxI/AAAAAAAAA-M/9pnmxyxOJ4wqRrzGraExfU0isxr1ViRggCLcBGAs/s400/ruslan-zh-5CldgrlKlkE-unsplash.jpg" width="400" /></a><span style="color: #444444;">Family : Poaceae</span><br />
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There are many species most common ones are :<br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Aestivum</li>
<li>Monococcom</li>
<li>Dichocum</li>
<li>Spheroccocum</li>
<li>Durum</li>
<li>Spelta</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Origin and History</span></b></div>
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Domestic wheat is a result of cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets wherein domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (inside the spikelets) remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting thus these wheat strains where chosen by the early farmers as this made gathering of the seeds easier. Archaeological survey and genetic analysis of wild Eicorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern <b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Turkey</span></b>. The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and Indian subcontinent by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BC, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BC. "The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale food production industries. By 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China. </div>
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<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">About Wheat</span></b></h4>
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<div>
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, it is a cereal grain which is a staple food worldwide. There are many species of wheat which together make up the genus Triticum however the most widely cultivated species is the common wheat. Wheat has the highest geographic area under cultivation among all the crops grown globally, it is also the second most produced food crop in the world. There is a greater demand for wheat because of its unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten protein, which facilitate the production of processed foods, whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide industrialization process and the westernization of the diet. </div>
<div>
Due to its wide demand Wheat is referred to as "King of Cereals"</div>
<div>
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Few Points about Wheat :</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Wheat is said to have originated in South West Asia (Turkey).</li>
<li>Wheat is a C-3 and long day plant.</li>
<li>Perling Index is a unit used to measure the hardiness of the grain, Perling index is inversely related to the hardiness of the grain.</li>
<li>The permanent adventitious roots that develop during CRI is called "Clonal Roots".</li>
<li>The Inflorescence of Wheat is called Spike and seed is called Caryopsis. </li>
</ul>
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<span style="color: #93c47d;"><b>Cultivation</b></span><br />
Wheat crop has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in the tropical and sub-tropical zones, but also in the temperate zone. It is also grown is wide variety of soils, the best measure to overcome any factors influencing the crop is to choose the best suited variety for the particular geographical region.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Cultivated Species of Wheat :</span></b><br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b>Common Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum)</b> : It is a Hexaploid, it is most commonly grown species in India. This was introduced to India by Dr. Norman E Borlaug.</li>
<li><b>Emmer Wheat (Triticum Dicoccum)</b> : It is a Diploid</li>
<li><b>Durum Wheat (Triticum durum)</b> : It is a polyploid, it is suitable for drought conditions, it is also the second most grown variety in India. </li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Climatic Requirement :</span></b><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Wheat has wide range of climatic requirement, It can be grown not only in the tropical and sub-tropical zones, but also in the temperate zone.</li>
<li>Wheat can tolerate cold up to 5 degree celcius. For best yields wheat needs cool, moist weather during the major portion of the growing period followed by dry/warm weather to enable proper grain ripening.</li>
<li>Areas with a warm and damp climate are not suited for wheat growing since the favor spread of Rust and seeding blight.</li>
<li>Temperature plays a crucial role in the development of Wheat crop. The temperature requirement for wheat fall in range 15 to 28 degrees and it depends on the variety and growth of the plant and optimum temperature during the crop is necessary for higher yields and grain quality.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="color: #93c47d;"><b>Soil Requirement :</b></span></div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Wheat is grown in wide variety of soils although the ideal soil type is loamy or clay loamy with intermediate water holding capacity. The soil should have moderate drainage capacity since the Wheat is sensitive to water logging.</li>
<li>pH of the soil must be between 6.5 to 7.</li>
<li>Wheat is grown in Light soils by providing frequent irrigation.</li>
</ul>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Seed and Sowing : </span></b></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The seeds of best suited variety must be selected for best yields.</li>
<li>The selected seeds must be free from weeds and any other physical impurities with good germination percentage.</li>
<li>The Seed Rate for Wheat is as follows:</li>
</ul>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Normal Condition - 100 kg/ha</li>
<li>Broadcasting - 150 kg/ha (Not recommended)</li>
<li>Dibbling - 25 - 30 kg/ha</li>
<li>FIRBS - 75 kg/ha</li>
</ol>
<ul style="text-align: left;"><div style="border: 1px solid Black; padding: 16px;">
Test Weight of Wheat is 40g.</div>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Sowing time for irrigated crop is first fortnight of November and for rainfed crop sowing is done during October.</li>
<li>Recommended depth of sowing is 5 cm.</li>
<li>Recommended spacing between plants is 22 X 10 cm for irrigated Wheat and 22 X 25 for rainfed crop.</li>
<li>Seed Priming is recommended before sowing to ensure higher germination rate.</li>
</ul>
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Land Preparation : </span></b>Land preparation is an important step in wheat farming, soil must be brought to optimum tilth for maximum yields.<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Land needs to be deep ploughed once which helps improve moisture retention capacity of soil.</li>
<li>The deeply ploughed soil must be harrowed 2 to 3 times using Disc or mould board plough.</li>
<li>Planking must be done after every ploughing so as to prepare well pulverized bed.</li>
<li>Application of 12 tonnes of well decomposed FYM on unploughed soil is recommended. </li>
<li>For Yield optimization, application of bio-fertilizers like Trichoderma, Azotobactor at suitable doses is recommended.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Nutrient Management :</span></b></div>
<div>
Recommended NPK ratio : 120:60:50/ha</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>12 tonnes of well decomposed FYM or compost should be applied at the time of ploughing.</li>
<li>Half the dose of N along with full dose of P and K should be applied as basal dose, Remaining half of the N dose should be applied during the first irrigation as top dressing.</li>
<li>Foliar spray of thiourea @0.5 % on standing crop increases the yield by 10 to 15 %.</li>
<li>Soil treatment with Bio-Fertilizers like Azotobacter, Trichoderma is recommended for higher yields.</li>
<li>Tillage techniques like FIRBS for increasing nutrient use efficiencies.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Irrigation Management :</span></b></div>
</div>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Wheat requires an annual rainfall of 100 cm, in areas with less 50 cm of annual rainfall, irrigation is compulsory.</li>
<li>Irrigation Schedule for wheat : </li>
</ul>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>CRI at 20-25 day after sowing. (Crown root initiation stage is most critical stage of irrigation).</li>
<li>Tillering at 40-45 day after sowing</li>
<li>Jointing at 60-65 day after sowing</li>
<li>Flowering at 80-85 day after sowing</li>
<li>Milking at 100-105 day after sowing</li>
<li>Dough stage at 115-120 day after sowing.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Weed Management :</span></b></div>
For non graminaceous broad leaved weeds spray 2, 4 -D @0.4 kg a.i/ha in 750 lit of water between 4 and 6 weeks after sowing. Spraying before or after this specific period will be harm full the wheat crop too. For graminaceous weeds like phalanris minor and wild oats, a preemergence application of tribunal @ 1.5 kg ai/ha dissolved in 750 lit of water controls them (or) spray a mixture of 2, 4 -D-ethyl ester with isoproturon/tribunal.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Harvesting :</span></b><br />
Time and method of harvesting varies from zone to zone, varieties and growing conditions. Crop should be harvested when grain is hardened completely, do not wait up till the crop is dead ripe for harvesting. In case of varieties not resistant to shedding, harvesting must be done while the base of the stalks are slightly green.<br />
<br />
Harvesting can either be done manually using a sickle or through machinery. Manual harvesting is suitable for small land holdings while machine harvesting is best suited and economic way for large holdings.<br />
<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-54324841040930638252019-06-17T14:52:00.002+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.525+05:30Paddy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="color: #e06666;"><b><br />Taxonomy</b></span><br />
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="height: 15pt; width: 59pt;" width="78">Kingdom</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; width: 105pt;" width="140">: Plantae</td>
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="border-top: none; height: 15pt;">Division</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">: Mangnoliophyta</td>
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="border-top: none; height: 15pt;">Class</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">: Lilliopsida</td>
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="border-top: none; height: 15pt;">Order</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">: Cyperales</td>
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="border-top: none; height: 15pt;">Family</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">: Poaceae</td>
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="border-top: none; height: 15pt;">Genus</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">: Oryza</td>
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<td class="xl65" height="20" style="border-top: none; height: 15pt;">Species</td>
<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;">: Sativa, Punata, </td>
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<td class="xl65" style="border-left: none; border-top: none;"> Rufipogon etc….</td>
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<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="color: #93c47d;">Botanical name : Oryza sativa</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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Common names : Rice, Nel, Arashi, Bheemu, Chaval, Akki etc...</div>
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<b><span style="color: #93c47d;"><br />Origin and History</span></b> : Paddy was domesticated from wild rice (Oryza Rufipogon) roughly around 10,000 to 14,000 years ago. The two main subspecies of rice O.indica and O.japonica are believed to have been derived from independent domestication events, however Recent genetic evidence show that all forms of Asian rice, both indica and japonica, come from a single domestication event that occurred 8,200 - 13,500 years ago in the Pearl River valley region of China. Based on archeological surveys conducted, rice is believed to have first been domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley in China.<br />
The earliest remains of the grain in the Indian subcontinent have been found in the Indo-Gangetic Plain dated 7000 - 6000 BC though the earliest widely accepted date for cultivated rice is placed at around 3000 - 2500 BC with findings in regions belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. The cultivation then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains watered by rivers. Cultivation and cooking methods are thought to have spread to the west rapidly and by medieval times, southern Europe saw the introduction of rice as a hearty grain.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Charecteristics</span></b><br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Paddy is a C-3 and Short day plant.</li>
<li>Rice is a mono-cot plant, has fibrous roots. </li>
<li>The plant can grow from 2 to 6 feet tall and has long slender pointy leaves that grow up to 100 cm in length.</li>
<li>The seed of rice is called Caryopsis, is produced on small flowers that are produced on branched inflorescence called Panicle.</li>
<li>The stem is commonly called culm is cylindrical and made of a series of nodes and internodes in alternating order.</li>
<li>The processed seed of paddy is rice and is sold commercially.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="color: blue;"></span><br />
<div style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 16px;">
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Note : The processed Seed of Paddy, i.e when the outer brown husk is removed by milling, is called Rice.</span></b></div>
<div>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b><br /></b></span><span style="color: #38761d;"><b>About Paddy</b></span></h4>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Rice is the staple food of about 60 percent of the world population, it is a predominant source of dietary fiber for 17 countries in Asia making it the most important staple food for the Asian population (Around 90 percent of rice is produced and consumed with in Asia). Rice is the third most produced agricultural crop in the world. The leading producer of Rice is China followed by India.<br />
<br />
Paddy is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial plant. It is a high water and labor requiring plant hence it is favorable to cultivate rice in regions where labor costs are low with high rainfall.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
The most followed method of cultivating paddy is the traditional method where the paddy fields are flooded and the crop is raised under submerged condition, this method is mostly followed to reduce weed population and decrease percolation loss of water. But Paddy is capable of growing in various environmental conditions depending on water availability.</div>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Nutrition<span style="font-weight: 400;"> </span></span></b>: Rice provides 20 percent of world's dietary energy requirement. Cooked, white, long-grained rice is composed of 68% water, 28% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and negligible fat . In a 100 gram serving, it provides 130 calories and contains no micro nutrients in significant amounts, with less than 10% of the Daily Value. However polished rice lacks Vitamin-A.</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Paddy Cultivation</span></b></h4>
<div style="text-align: left;">
There are 24 known species in the Genus Oryza out of which only 2 species are cultivated.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
1.Oryza Sativa : There are three sub species in the species.</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Indica - Grown in tropics and sub-tropic regions, Most cultivated species in India.</li>
<li>Japonica - Grown in temperate and sub-tropical regions, Mostly cultivated in Japan.</li>
<li>Javanica - It is mostly grown in Indonesia.</li>
</ul>
<div>
2.Oryza Glaberrima : This species is called African rice, cultivated only in Africa.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Climate and Soil</span></b></div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Paddy is a Tropical crop meaning it needs high temperature for it's growth, but it is also grown in humid, Sub-tropical and temperate regions.The temperature requirement for Paddy is 21 to 35 degree however the optimum temperature is found to be 30 degree during the day and 20 degree during night.</li>
<li>Soil - Paddy can be grown in almost all types of soil provided the right irrigation facilities but major soil groups for paddy cultivation are Alluvial, red-loamy, clay, clay-loamy, black and shallow black soils.</li>
<li>Rainfall - Rainfall is an major requirement for paddy, the rainfall pattern decides the Rice ecosystem, Paddy requires high rainfall ranging from 150 to 200 cm.</li>
<li>Sunshine - Solar radiation is an essential component that has a direct influence on Paddy yield, it is found that Solar Radiations of 500-700 cal /cm-2 /day are necessary for higher yields.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
<b>Sesonality:</b></div>
<div>
Since Paddy has wide range of climatic requirement, it can be grown through out the year. Depending on the Sowing time of the crop, paddy has Four growing seasons.</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Aus/Pre-Kharif/Autumn Rice : Sowing time - Apr - May, Harvest Time - Sept - Oct.</li>
<li>Aman/Kharif/Winter Rice: Sowing Time June - July, Harvest Time - Nov - Dec.</li>
<li>Boro/Rabi/Spring Rice : Sowing Time - Nov - Dec, Harvest Time - Mar - Apr.</li>
<li>Zaid/Summer Rice : Sowing Time - Dec - Jan, Harvest Time - Mar - Apr.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="color: blue;"></span><br />
<div style="border: 1px solid black; padding: 16px;">
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Fact : It is a most common misconception that Paddy can only be grown in submerged condition i.e in standing water, but Paddy can be grown in any condition like other crops.</span></b></div>
<div>
<br />
<b><span style="color: #93c47d;">Crop Establishment Methods in Paddy:</span></b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
1.Transplanting : Widely followed method for Paddy cultivation, involves raising of seedlings on designated areas called nursery for an average of 15 to 25 days and then transplanting the seedlings to the main field. There are two types:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Manual Transplanting - Practiced where there is abundance of labour. Involves manually transplanting the seedlings.</li>
<li>Machine Transplanting - Involves planting young rice seedlings into puddled soil by machine. </li>
</ul>
<div>
2. Broadcasting : It involves throwing of seeds by hand around the field, thinning may be necessary after plants stand.</div>
</div>
<div>
3.Drilling - It involves sowing seeds at holes made at specific intervals made either manually or by using a seed drill.</div>
<div>
4.Japanese method : It is similar to transplanting method except high yielding varieties are chosen for cultivation.</div>
<div>
5. Seedling Throwing Method - Involves throwing 20 day old seedlings into the puddled leveled field by labour without using force.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Paddy Eco-Systems:</span></b></div>
<div>
Depending on the Growing Conditions of the crop like Soil type, Availability of water and Rainfall, there are three systems of Paddy Cultivation.</div>
<div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Wet System : This is a irrigated system of cultivation, it is followed where water is available in abundance. The field is brought to a soft puddle by repeated ploughings with 5-7 cm standing water. After obtaining a soft puddle and perfect levelling, rice seedlings are transplanted or sprouted seeds are dibbled or broadcasted on the puddled field. This system of cultivation is followed wherever assured irrigation water is available. This irrigated rice contributes to 55 per cent of the total rice production. There are three methods in this system.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>System of Rice Intensification.</li>
<li>Transplanted Puddled Lowland Rice.</li>
<li>Direct Wet Seeded Puddled Lowland Rice.</li>
</ul>
<div>
2. Dry System : This system is primarily dependent on monsoons also called a rainfed crop, the fields are ploughed and harrowed in summer for achieving the required tilth. The seed is sown directly with the onset of the monsoon showers, either by broadcasting, dibbling behind the country plough or by drilling in lines. Line-sowing is preferable, as it ensures an adequate stand establishment and facilitates easy weeding and inter-culture. There are two methods in this system.</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Dry seeded rainfed unpuddled lowland rice.</li>
<li>Rainfed upland rice</li>
</ul>
<div>
3. Semi-Dry System : In this system seeds are sown in ploughed dry soil with monsoon rains. Whenever water is available after onset of monsoon, it is treated as wet paddy. In command area, anticipating the release of water, rice crop can be raised under semi dry condition up to a maximum of 45 days. Then the crop in converted in the wet condition on receipt of water.</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Dry seeded rice in unpuddled lowland.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>Nursery Management</b> : Nursery management is an important part of successful rice cultivation in case of transplanted rice. The type of Nursery and its management to be followed depends on the Rice Eco-System.<br />
<br />
There are 3 Types of Nursery.<br />
<br />
1. Wet Nursery :<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>This method is followed where there is assured supply of water and good drainage facilities.</li>
<li>Area required for 1 Hectare land is 800 sq.meter.</li>
<li>The nursery area is irrigated and left to stand for two days followed by through puddling.</li>
<li>After levelling and final puddling, beds of convenient length (8-10 m) with width of 2.5 m are to be made, leaving 30 - 50 cm channels in between two beds.</li>
<li>Sprouted seeds are then uniformly spread on the seedbed.</li>
</ul>
<div>
2. Dry Nursery :</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>This type of nursery is suitable for water scarce areas.</li>
<li>The nursery area is dry ploughed 5-6 times to acquire the fine tilth.</li>
<li>Plots of 1 to 1.5 m bed width and channels are made. Length depends on the slope and soil. </li>
<li>After application of recommend dose of fertilizers, seeds mixed with sand and finely powdered farmyard manure is spread evenly on the seedbed.</li>
</ul>
<div>
3. Dapog Method or Mat Nursery :</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Area required for 1 Hectare is only 100 sq.meter.</li>
<li>In this method, seedlings or raised on a layer of soil mix placed on a firm surface like concrete or polythene sheet.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Seed selection and quality<br />
Seed selection is a crucial process in any crop production, Good quality seed can increase yields by 5-20%. Using good seed leads to lower seeding rates, higher crop emergence, reduced replanting, more uniform plant stands, and more vigorous early crop growth. Vigorous growth in early stages reduces weed problems and increases crop resistance to insect pests and diseases. All of these factors contribute to higher yields and more productive rice farms.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<br />
Some of the factors that need to be considered while selecting the seeds, the selected variety must be suitable for the environment, the seeds must be free from any physical impurities, they must be fully mature and vigorous.<br />
<br />
Seed Rate<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Drilling - 30 to 60 kg /ha, - 30 kg for long duration varieties, 40 for short duration and 60 kg for short duration varieties.</li>
<li>Broadcasting - 100 kg/ha.</li>
<li>Hybrid Rice - 15 to 20 kg/ha.</li>
<li>7 to 8 kg/ha in case of SRI method.</li>
</ul>
<div>
Depth of Sowing - 2 to 3 cm.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<span style="color: blue;"></span><br />
<div style="border: 1px solid black; padding: 16px;">
Test Weight of Paddy Seeds - 25 g (1000 seeds weight)</div>
<div>
<br />
Transplanting - Transplanting must be done 15 to 30 days after sowing, when seedlings bear 3 to 4 leaves. 2 to 3 seedlings must be transplanted per hill.</div>
<div>
Seed Treatment</div>
<div>
Seeds are treated with fungicides and enhancers prior to sowing, this is generally done as a preventive measure to protect the seeds against soil-borne pathogens and also to increase the vigor of the seeds.<br />
The usual recommendation for paddy seed treatment are Carbendazim, Pyroquilon or Tricyclozole solution at 2 gm/lit of water for 1 kg of seeds for 10 hrs and drain excess water. The seeds can also be treated with Bio-Fungicides like Pseudomonas fluorescens or Bio-Feritlizers like Azospirillum.<br />
<br />
Land Preparation:<br />
Land preparation involves plowing and harrowing mixing and leveling the soil until the soil is brought to a fine tilth.<br />
Tillage allows the seeds to be planted at the right depth, and also helps with weed control. Farmers can till the land themselves using hoes and other equipment or they can do it with the help of draft animals, such as buffalo, tractors and other machinery.<br />
Paddy requires soils with good water retention capacity with high amount of clay and organic matter with Ph ranging between 4.5 to 6.<br />
<br />
Tillage operations:<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Ploughing - It is the primary tillage operations, which is performed to cut, break and invert the soil partially or completely suitable for sowing seeds. it increases water holding capacity of the soil, destroys weeds and soil borne pests and improves soil aeration.</li>
<li>Harrowing - Harrowing is a secondary tillage operation which is done to a shallow depth for smoothening and pulverizing the soil as well as to mix up the soil materials.</li>
<li>Puddling - Puddling is churning the soil with water. It is done in paddy fields with standing water of 5-10 cm depth after initial ploughing. It facilitates transplanting and decreases the percolation loss of water.</li>
<li>Leveling - It is the final step, it is done to ensure uniform distribution of water throughout the field, it also facilitates mechanical transplantation of seedlings.</li>
</ul>
Land Preparation in Paddy depends on the type of Ecosystem followed:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Wet System : Land is thoroughly ploughed and puddled with a standing water 5 to 7 cm followed by leveling to ensure uniform distribution of water. The seeds/seedling are then sowed/transplanted.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Dry System - Land is repeatedly ploughed and harrowed to obtain a fine tilth followed by application of farmyard manure at the rate of 10 tonnes per ha at least 25 days before sowing seeds. (Similar method is followed for Semi-Dry System).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Irrigation</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Wet System - Paddy is a crop with high water requirement, average water requirement of water is around 1400 to 1500 mm. In regions with high rainfall and sufficient irrigation facilities wet system of cultivation is followed, fields are flooded with 5 to 7 cm of water 10 cm in case of clay loamy soils. Bunds and channels are used to hold water in place, puddling helps prevent the percolation loss of water in this system and helps save up to 20 percent water.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Dry System - In regions where rainfall is the only source of irrigation, sufficient amount of water may not be available for the crop growth, In such cases Dry system is followed. A combination of water conservation techniques like alternate drying and wetting, mulching, making efficient utilization of available water are adopted to sustain the crop.<br />
<br />
Critical Irrigation Stages in Paddy are - Booting, Panicle initiation and flowering Stages.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div style="border: 1px solid black; padding: 16px;">
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Fact : An average Paddy plant requires 4000 liters of water to produce 1 kilogram. of paddy. </span></b></div>
<br />
Nutrient Management :<br />
<br />
Recomended NPK ratio - 150:50:50<br />
<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Apply 10 to 12 tonnes of well decomposed farmyard manure at least 1 week prior to sowing/transplanting.</li>
<li>Nitrogen is applied is 3 split doses, 50% percent as basal dose and the rest is applied as top dressing 30 DAT and last dose during panicle initiation.</li>
<li>Phosphorous and Potassium are applied as full dose at basal application.</li>
<li>In Zinc deficient soils, Zinc Sulphate at the rate of 25 kg/ha is applied prior to transplanting and in other soils foliar spray 0.5 % Zinc is taken up in case of any visible Zinc deficiency.</li>
<li>Bio-Fertilizer : Use of Biofertilizer is found to be extremely beneficial in paddy, Most suitable Bio-fertilizers used are :</li>
</ul>
<br />
1. Azolla –as green rmanure @ 6t /ha, as dual crop (0.5 t/ha) in 7 DAT<br />
2. Blue green algae - 10 kg/ha on 10 DAT<br />
3. Azotobacter /Azospirillium /Phosphobacteria - 10 packets (soil application)<br />
4. Azophos – 20 packets (soil application) .<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Green manuring is another means of naturally enriching soil fertility, most used green manure plants in paddy field are Glyricydia and Sun Hemp.</li>
<li>Foliar spray of Brassinosteriods 0.3 ppm at Panicle Initiation and Flowering stages increased the grain yield.</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Weed Management</h3>
<div>
The most common weeds infesting Paddy fields are :<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Monochoria vaginalis</li>
<li>Ludwigia parviflora</li>
<li>Ageratum conyzoides</li>
<li>Eclipta alba</li>
<li>Cyperus difformis</li>
<li>Cyperus rotandus</li>
<li>Monochoria vaginalis</li>
<li>Portulaca oleracia</li>
<li>Salvinia molesta</li>
<li>Chara spp</li>
</ul>
<div>
The period of weed competition in case of transplanted paddy is only about 1/3rd (15 to 45 DAT) of the total duration of the crop, but weeding during this period results is highest yield in Paddy.</div>
<div>
In case of Upland rice, weeding has to be done through out the crop period for maximum yield.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Methods of Weed control:</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
1. Preventive measures :</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Use of weed free seeds.</li>
<li>Use of weed free seed bed.</li>
<li>Use clean tools and machinery.</li>
<li>Clean irrigation canals and bunds</li>
</ul>
Prevent entry of water-carried vegetative propagules of weeds that are perennial.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
2. Eradication measures : Involves destroying the species at the initial stage of introduction and</div>
<div>
degenerating the buried dormant but viable seeds by flooding.</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Cultural methods - Flooding and intensive puddling, summer ploughing, deep ploughing to invert the weeds below the soil, increased plant population.</li>
<li>Manual weeding - Weeds are removed and collected from crop fields by hand, manual weeding is the most widely used method of weed control in rice which is, however, difficult, time consuming and often costly. </li>
<li>Mechanical method - Using rotary weeder and Hoes and Harrows repeatedly.</li>
<li>Chemical method :</li>
</ul>
<div>
1. Pre-emergence herbicide :</div>
</div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Butachlor - 1.25 kg/ha</li>
<li>Anilophos - 0.4 kg/ha</li>
<li>Pendimethalin 30 % EC - 4.5 kg/ha</li>
</ul>
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2. Post-emergence herbicide :</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>2,4 D - 1.25 kg/ha</li>
<li>Propanil 35 EC - 7.5 lit/ha.</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Crop Protection</h3>
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<div>
<b><a href="http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/paddy/cppests.html" target="_blank">Pests of Paddy</a></b><br />
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Paddy is attacked by at least a dozen pests, without proper management practices insects in paddy can cause up to 80 % loss in the yield.<br />
Most common pest infesting paddy fields are : paddy leaf folder, stem borer, leaf hopper, brown plant hopper, thrips, gall midge, thrips. <a href="http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/paddy/cppests.html" target="_blank">Pest Management of Paddy</a></div>
<a href="http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/paddy/cpdiseases.html" target="_blank"><br /></a><a href="http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/paddy/cpdiseases.html" target="_blank">Diseases of Paddy</a><br />
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Diseases are caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses.Losses due to the diseases in rice are very heavy and there are famines have been reported in the history due to the crop diseases. one such example is the "Great Bengal Famine" during 1943 due to epidemic outbreak of brown leaf spot caused by Helminthosporium oryzae.<br />
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<a href="http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/paddy/cpdiseases.html" target="_blank">Disease Management of Paddy</a><br />
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The most common diseases of Paddy are Blast, Brown spot, Bacterial leaf blight etc.<br />
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General Management Strategies of Disease control in Paddy:<br />
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1.Cultural Methods<br />
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Using Disease resistant varieties is the most economic and practical way of controlling diseases.</li>
<li>Use only healthy and pure seeds.</li>
<li>Remove alternate hosts and collateral hosts.</li>
<li>Provide adequate nutrition for plants, diseases are most likely to attack weak plants first.</li>
<li>Avoid water flow into the field from disease infected fields.</li>
<li>Maintain proper spacing among plants.</li>
<li>Avoid Excess fertilizing.</li>
</ul>
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2. Preventive Methods:</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Seed Treatment - Treating seeds with specific fungicides and bio-fungicides to prevent the infestation.</li>
</ul>
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3. Chemical Methods : Use of specific plant protection chemical to eradicate the Disease and Bacteria.</div>
</div>
<div>
Ex : Use of Carbendizium 1g/lit to control Blast.</div>
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For detailed management practices of diseases of Paddy <a href="http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/paddy/cpdisblast.html" target="_blank">Click Here</a>.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Harvesting</h3>
<div>
In paddy, harvesting refers to to the cutting and gathering of panicles attached to the stalks. Harvesting at the right time and in the right way maximizes grain yield and minimizes grain losses and quality deterioration. Once the plants have reached full growth (approximately three months after planting) and the grains begin to ripen-the tops begin to droop and the stem yellows-the water is drained from the fields. As the fields dry, the grains ripen further and harvesting is commenced.</div>
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Factors to be considered while Harvesting Paddy :</div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The grain must be mature, high in quality and have proper moisture content.</li>
<li>Field should be sufficiently dry to support harvesting and transport.</li>
<li>Timely harvesting ensures good grain quality, high market value and improved consumer acceptance.</li>
<li>The right stage for harvesting is when about 80% panicles have 80 % ripened spike lets and their upper portion is straw colored. The grain contains about 20% of moisture.</li>
<li style="line-height: 25px;">Rice should be harvested when the grains on lower part of the panicle are in hard dough stage.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b>Methods of Harvesting</b></div>
</div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
<div>
1. Manual Harvesting : <span style="background-color: white; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Manual harvesting makes use of traditional threshing tools such as threshing racks, simple treadle threshers and animals for trampling or by hand using sharp knives or sickles. Gives 55-60 % grain recovery.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">2. Machine Harvesting : involves use of machines like reaper, Combined harvester.</span><br />
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<b>Post Harvest Management </b><br />
<b><br /></b>1. Threshing - Threshing is the process of beating paddy plants in order to separate the seeds or grains from the straw. To maintain the high quality of the harvested grains, it should be threshed immediately after harvesting. It can be done both manually or using machine.<br />
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2. Drying - Drying is the process of removal of excess moisture from the grains. Drying is an important process in Paddy because drying results in increased storage life of the grains, prevention of deterioration in quality, reduction of biological respiration that leads to quality loss of grains, and optimum milling recovery. There are three methods of Drying :<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Sun drying - It is the most economical method of drying, Grains are spread on drying surfaces such as concrete pavement, mats, plastic sheets and even on fields to dry naturally.</li>
<li>Mechanical Drying - Mechanical drying process means drying the grains by ventilating natural or heated air through the grain mass to get it evaporated the moisture from it.</li>
<li>Chemical Drying - Chemical drying method involves the spraying of common salt solution with specific gravity of 1.1 to 1.2 on the ears of the mature paddy crop.</li>
</ul>
<div>
3. Parboiling - Parboiling is a premilling hydrothermal treatment given to unhulled rice (rough rice) to improve its milling quality, nutritive value, cooking quality and storability. It involves three steps : Soaking, Steaming and Drying.</div>
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4. Milling - Milling is the process wherein the rice grain is transformed into a form suitable for human consumption, therefore, has to be done with utmost care to prevent breakage of the kernel and improve the recovery.</div>
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5. Pollishing - The process of removal of bran layer in brown rice.</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-43195907016369165772019-02-11T19:07:00.002+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.533+05:30AEROPONICS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
It is a system of cultivation where the plants are grown under Soil less condition and the necessary nutrients and moisture are supplied in the form of mist.<br />
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Etymology : The term " Aeroponics was derived from Greek words, "Aer" meaning air and "Ponos" meaning labor.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
History </h3>
The first experiments on Aeroponics were developed only to facilitate the study of Root structure because of the absence of the soil, later the system was developed as an exclusive system of farming due to it's wide suitability of growing crops.<br />
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The first article on Aeroponics was published in 1911 by V.M. Artshikovski, he also developed first Aeroponic apparatus and showed plants can be grown under soil less conditions. In 1942 W. Carter conducted research on Air culture of plants and described a method of growing plants in water vapor. Later in 1952, G.F. Trowel grew Apple trees in spray culture. In 1957, F.W. Went coined the term "Aeroponics" for the first time.<br />
Commercialization of Aeroponics began around 1966. B. Briggs succeeded in inducing roots in hardwood cuttings by air-rooting, many independent experiments were conducted on Aeroponics around the globe. In 1976 British researcher John Prewer carried out series of experiments on aeroponics and grew Lettuce (Variety - Tom Thumb) which took 22 days for "seed to maturity".<br />
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In 1983, R. Stoner filed a patent for his microprocessor integrated Aeroponic chamber, Later the first commercial Aeroponic Apparatus called the "Genesis Machine" was developed GTi,(A company owned by R. Stoner).<br />
Aeroponics got further push in 1990s when NASA took an interest in the system and stated funding for the research and development of Aeroponic system.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Aeroponic System </h3>
<div>
Aeroponics simply is soil less cultivation of plants, in the beginning the system was developed to help study the root structure since the absence of soil made it easy to study the roots. But due its wide suitability and numerous advantages, the system was developed as an exclusive system of farming and since 2006, Aeroponics has been implemented by many firms and progressive farmers for commercial crop production around the globe.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CKOzo7YG0-o/XF5YPVCWqtI/AAAAAAAAAfA/NKtjw-aginoKnSuhZAmvfYNuE5XLxk8HwCLcBGAs/s1600/Aeroponic-System.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="652" data-original-width="1200" height="345" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CKOzo7YG0-o/XF5YPVCWqtI/AAAAAAAAAfA/NKtjw-aginoKnSuhZAmvfYNuE5XLxk8HwCLcBGAs/s640/Aeroponic-System.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<b><br /></b>
<b>Components : An Aeroponic system comprises of four principle components.</b></div>
<div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Nutrient Tank</span> - It is a container where the Nutrient rich solutions is made by mixing water and nutrients in definite proportions which is fed to to the plants, the nutrient tank also serves as storage chamber and collection chamber of the Nutrient solution.</li>
<li><span style="color: #6aa84f;">High Pressure Pumps</span> - Used to deliver the nutrient mix to the plants at high Pressure.</li>
<li><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Solid stand or Table</span> - It is a mechanical structure used to provide mechanical support to the plants.</li>
<li><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Misting Nozzles</span> - Used to create uniform water droplets through which the nutrients are fed to the plants.</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Working:</span></b> Seeds are germinated on a suitable germinating media like coco peat, sky foam etc.. after the germinated seedlings reach the optimum size they are transplanted to the growth chambers. A solid stand or table is used to hold the plant in place throughout it's growing growing period. The aerial parts of the plants i.e. stem and canopy region are placed above the table and the roots are left freely to grow under the table. Roots are fed with a nutrient rich solution which is directly sprayed on the roots at high pressure in the form of micro droplets of size ranging between 5 to 50 micro meter.</div>
<div>
In order to create a optimum misting condition for the plants high pressure is required and this is achieved using high pressure pumps with variable power depending on the size of the farm. The pump delivers the nutrient solution to the nozzles through CPVC, PVC or lateral pipes, the nozzle breaks the water column into fine micro droplets of 5 to 50 micro meter which are distributed to entire root zone, the roots take up the nutrients through osmosis. Further the excess nutrient solution flows back to the nutrient tank through the drain structures provided.</div>
</div>
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The frequency and duration of misting is sometimes controlled by employing a timer. The timer is usually fixed between the power supply and the pump, the frequency and duration of the misting is pre-set in the timer based on the crops water requirement.</div>
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The size of the water droplets is the key feature for a successful aeroponic system, Too big droplets limit the oxygen supply, the droplets don't adhere to the root hairs long enough for the plants to absorb. Too small droplets cause excessive growth of root hairs and affects the production of lateral roots which affect the plant growth. Therefore creating the mist droplets of optimum size is most crucial for sustaining an Aeroponic farm. Many equipment like nozzles, sprayers ultrasonic foggers are used to create mist to deliver to the plants, Aeroponic systems are normally closed-looped systems providing macro and micro-environments suitable to sustain a reliable, constant air culture. Numerous inventions have been developed to facilitate aeroponic spraying and misting. In commercial applications, a hydro-atomizing spray at 360° is employed to cover large areas of roots utilizing air pressure misting.</div>
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<br /></div>
<b><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Adavantages of Aeroponics:</span></b><br />
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Aeroponic system enables a clean, efficient, and rapid food production. Crops can be planted and harvested in the system year round without contamination from soil, pesticides, and residue. Since the growing environment is clean and sterile, it greatly reduces the chances of spreading plant disease and infection commonly found in soil and other growing media.<br />
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<span style="color: #6aa84f;"><b>Pros</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #6aa84f;"><b><br /></b></span>1. Low water consumption - One of the main advantage of aeroponics is it's low water consumption, it only requires about 95 percent of water compared to other conventional methods of farming.<br />
2. Low fertilizer consumption - The fertilizer consumption is as low as 50 percent when compared to other farming methods.<br />
3. Reduction in growing period - Its has been found that there is 30 percent reduction in the growth period of crops, this might be due to many reasons but the most believed reason is that the nutrients are readily made available to the plants and the roots don't have to grow and reach out of moisture and nutrients.<br />
4.Crops can be grown throughout the year - Crops can be grown year round due to the elimination of seasonality.<br />
5. Less incidence of pests and diseases - Since crops are grown in controlled environment, the incidence of pests and diseases is decreased to a great extent.<br />
6. Complete weed free conditions - Since the plants are grown without any physical contact with soil there will absolute weed free condition. Although there has been few incidents of parasitic weed infestation in aeroponic farm.<br />
7. Higher Production - Aeroponic farm yields more compared to other conventional methods due to many reasons:<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>High oxygen supply to the plants, oxygen is one the limiting factor when it comes to crop yield, in aeropoincs due to high oxygen supply, the plants yield more.</li>
<li>98 percent weed free condition, due to absence of soil , there is no competition between crops and weeds.</li>
<li>Higher plant population, Due to less competition between the plants the spacing between the plants is also reduced which results in more plants per unit area which in turn results in more yield per unit area.</li>
<li>Crop production through out the year, since the production is not affected by the seasonality, production is possible through out the year.</li>
</ul>
<div>
8. Effective utilization of space - Aeroponics can be practiced anywhere provided there is enough space and resources, it helps utilization of barren lands.</div>
<div>
9. Complete control over the system.</div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: #cc0000;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Cons</span></b></div>
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1.Initial cost of setup is high, a commercial aeroponic system may require a significant investment.<br />
2. Requires continuous supply and power and water - Since the sole source of nourishment to the plants is the nutrient mist, the fertigation process must run continuously.<br />
3.Requires frequent maintenance, pumps, and other parts in the fertigaton unit require frequent cleaning and service.<br />
4.Requires the knowledge of the system to effectively carry out the production operations.<br />
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-260457008740596642.post-48798779437032503182019-02-08T13:45:00.001+05:302020-10-08T00:45:51.539+05:30Agriculture<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Definitions :<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li> Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating crops and rearing livestock for economic purposes.</li>
</ul>
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Etymology : The term Agriculture was derived from Latin words "Ager" meaning Soil and "Cultura" meaning cultivation. </div>
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<b>History:</b></div>
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Agriculture is a result of continuous selection and repeated cultivation of wild varieties of our present day crops. This process is termed as "Domestication". Before traditional agriculture people used to survive on seeds, wild fruits, roots and hunting for food. With time man gradually started selecting only those crops with desirable qualities and focused on that crop and gradually started cultivating these crops and started developing and disseminating techniques of cultivating the crops productively. The advancement in the skill and knowledge of man about agriculture led to formation of clans and tribes who started to settle down in one geographical area, with further development trade relations starting between different cities and group of people enabling advancement of human societies and cultures, many such collective event led to the modern day Agriculture.<br />
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There are number of explanations about the origin of Agriculture, It is believed the first of the crops were believed to have cultivated around 10,000 BC and domestication of animals started around 12,000 BC. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin. the eight Neolithic founder crops emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas, and flax were cultivated in the Levant region of fertile crecent. Wheat was the first crop to be cultivated and harvested on a significant scale. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection, but of the estimated dated of agricultural events are as follows :<br />
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Domestication of Pigs was started around 11,000 BC in Mesopotamia.</li>
<li>Sheep was domesticated during 11,000 BC to 9,000 BC.</li>
<li>The neolithic founder crops were domesticated around 9,500 BC.</li>
<li>Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8500 BC.</li>
<li>Potato and Tomato cultivation was started around 8,000 BC.</li>
<li>Maize cultivation started around 6,700 BC</li>
<li>Rice was domesticated in China by 6200 BC with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans.</li>
<li>Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 7000 BC.</li>
<li>Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3600 BC.</li>
<li>3500 BC, wheel was invented which promoted trading between groups of people.</li>
</ul>
<div>
The invention of metal tools the marked the end of Neolithic era and beginning of the Bronze age, The Bronze Age, from 3300 BC, witnessed the intensification of agriculture in civilizations such as Mesopotamian Sumer, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilisation of the Indian subcontinent, ancient China, and ancient Greece. During the Iron Age and era of classical antiquity, the expansion of ancient Rome, both the Republic and then the Empire, throughout the ancient Mediterranean and Western Europe built upon existing systems of agriculture while also establishing the manorial system that became a bedrock of medieval agriculture. In the Middle Ages, both in the Islamic world and in Europe, agriculture was transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al-Andalus. After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and turnips, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to the Americas. Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and developed much further in the past 200 years </div>
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